The Standard Model of particle physics recognizes three kinds of gauge bosons: photons, which carry the electromagnetic interaction; W and Z bosons, which carry the weak interaction; and gluons, which ...
In his 1687 theory, Newton postulated space as an infinite and unalterable physical structure existing before, within, and around all objects while their states and relations unfold at a constant pace ...
In particle physics, mesons (/?mi?z?nz/ or /?m?z?nz/) are hadronic subatomic particles composed of one quark and one antiquark, bound together by the strong interaction. Because mesons are compo ...
The gluon is a vector boson; like the photon, it has a spin of 1. While massive spin-1 particles have three polarization states, massless gauge bosons like the gluon have only two polarization states ...
In 1910, Peter Debye derived Planck's law of black-body radiation from a relatively simple assumption. He correctly decomposed the electromagnetic field in a cavity into its Fourier modes, and assumed ...
In 1900, Max Planck was working on black-body radiation and suggested that the energy in electromagnetic waves could only be released in "packets" of energy. In his 1901 article in Annalen der Physik ...
At low temperatures, bosons behave differently from fermions (which obey the Fermi–Dirac statistics) in that an unlimited number of them can "condense" into the same energy state. This apparently unu ...
The tau neutrino or tauon neutrino is a subatomic elementary particle which has the symbol ντ and no net electric charge. Together with the tau, it forms the third generation of leptons, hence its n ...
The tau was detected in a series of experiments between 1974 and 1977 by Martin Lewis Perl with his colleagues at the SLAC-LBL group. Their equipment consisted of SLAC's then-new e+–e? colliding rin ...
In 1962 Leon M. Lederman, Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger showed that more than one type of neutrino exists by first detecting interactions of the muon neutrino (already hypothesised with the nam ...
Muons were discovered by Carl D. Anderson and Seth Neddermeyer at Caltech in 1936, while studying cosmic radiation. Anderson had noticed particles that curved differently from electrons and other know ...
See also: Neutrino: Chirality and Neutrino oscillationExperimental results show that all produced and observed neutrinos have left-handed helicities (spins antiparallel to momenta), and all antineutri ...
In the early 1900s, theories predicted that the electrons resulting from beta decay should have been emitted at a specific energy. However, in 1914, James Chadwick showed that electrons were instead e ...
Once the (exact) value of an eigenvalue is known, the corresponding eigenvectors can be found by finding non-zero solutions of the eigenvalue equation, that becomes a system of linear equations with k ...
Eigenvectors and eigenvalues of a real matrix Matrix A acts by stretching the vector x, not changing its direction, so x is an eigenvector of A.See also: Euclidean vector and Matrix (mathematics)In ma ...
