|
The Restoration Movement has been characterized by several key principles: Christianity should not be divided, Christ intended the creation of one church.[7]:38[12]:755 Creeds divide, but Christians should be able to find agreement by standing on the Bible itself (from which they believe all creeds are but human expansions or constrictions)[13]:252–254 Ecclesiastical traditions divide, but Christians should be able to find common ground by following the practice (as best as it can be determined) of the early church.[14]:104–6 Names of human origin divide, but Christians should be able to find common ground by using biblical names for the church (i.e., "Christian Church", "Church of God" or "Church of Christ" as opposed to "Methodist" or "Lutheran", etc.).[8]:27 Thus, the church 'should stress only what all Christians hold in common and should suppress all divisive doctrines and practices'.[15] A number of slogans have been used in the Restoration Movement, which are intended to express some of the distinctive themes of the Movement.[16]:688 These include: "Where the Scriptures speak, we speak; where the Scriptures are silent, we are silent."[16]:688 "The church of Jesus Christ on earth is essentially, intentionally, and constitutionally one."[16]:688 "We are Christians only, but not the only Christians."[16]:688 "In essentials, unity; in opinions, liberty; in all things love."[16]:688 "No creed but Christ, no book but the Bible, no law but love, no name but the divine."[16]:688 "Do Bible things in Bible ways."[16]:688 "Call Bible things by Bible names."[16]:688 Background influences Huldrych Zwingli as depicted by Hans Asper in an oil portrait from 1531; Kunstmuseum Winterthur. During the late Middle Ages, some early dissenters such as John Wycliff and John Huss called for a restoration of a primitive form of Christianity, but they were driven underground. As a result, some scholars believe it is difficult to find any direct links between such early dissenters and the restoration movement.[14]:13 Beginning with the Renaissance period, intellectual roots become easier to discern.[14]:11 At the heart of the Reformation was an emphasis on the principle of "Scripture alone" (sola scriptura).[14]:22–3 This, along with the related insistence on the right of individuals to read and interpret the Bible for themselves and a movement to reduce ritual in worship, formed part of the intellectual background of early Restoration Movement leaders.[14]:32–3 The branch of the Reformation movement represented by Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin contributed an emphasis on "restoring biblical forms and patterns."[14]:33 John Locke by Herman Verelst. The rationalism of John Locke provided another influence.[14]:78 Reacting to the deism of Lord Herbert, Locke sought a way to address religious division and persecution without abandoning Scripture.[14]:78 To do this, Locke argued against the right of government to enforce religious orthodoxy and turned to the Bible to supply a set of beliefs that all Christians could agree upon.[14]:78–79 The core teachings which he viewed as essential were the messiahship of Jesus and Jesus' direct commands.[14]:78–9 Christians could be devoutly committed to other Biblical teachings but, in Locke's view, these were non-essentials over which Christians should never fight or try to coerce each other.[14]:79 Unlike the Puritans and the later Restoration Movement, Locke did not call for a systematic restoration of the early church.[14]:79 One of the basic goals of the English Puritans was to restore a pure, "primitive" church that would be a true apostolic community.[14]:40,41 This conception was a critical influence in the development of the Puritans in Colonial America.[14]:50–6 During the First Great Awakening, a movement developed among those Baptists known as Separate Baptists. Two themes of this movement were the rejection of creeds and "freedom in the Spirit."[14]:65 The Separate Baptists saw Scripture as the "perfect rule" for the church.[14]:66 However, while they turned to the Bible for a structural pattern for the church, they did not insist on complete agreement on the details of that pattern.[14]:67 This group originated in New England, but was especially strong in the South where the emphasis on a biblical pattern for the church grew stronger.[14]:67 In the last half of the 18th century, Separate Baptists became more numerous on the western frontier of Kentucky and Tennessee, where the Stone and Campbell movements would later take root.[14]:68 The development of the Separate Baptists in the southern frontier helped prepare the ground for the Restoration Movement. The membership of both the Stone and Campbell groups drew heavily from the ranks of the Separate Baptists.[14]:67 Separate Baptist restorationism also contributed to the development of the Landmark Baptists in the same region as the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement and at about the same time. Under the leadership of James Robinson Graves, this group wanted to define a precise blueprint for the primitive church, believing that any deviation from that blueprint would prevent a person from being part of the true church.[14]:68 1839 Methodist camp meeting, watercolor from the Second Great Awakening. The ideal of restoring a "primitive" form of Christianity grew in popularity in the U.S. after the American Revolution.[14]:89–94 This desire to restore a purer form of Christianity played a role in the development of many groups during this period, known as the Second Great Awakening.[14]:89 These included the Mormons, Baptists and Shakers.[14]:89 The Restoration Movement began during, and was greatly influenced by, this second Awakening.[17]:368 While the Campbells resisted what they saw as the spiritual manipulation of the camp meetings, the Southern phase of the Awakening "was an important matrix of Barton Stone's reform movement" and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells.[17]:368 James O'Kelly was an early advocate of seeking unity through a return to New Testament Christianity.[18]:216 In 1792, dissatisfied with the role of bishops in the Methodist Episcopal Church, he separated from that body. O'Kelly's movement, centering in Virginia and North Carolina, was originally called Republican Methodists. In 1794 they adopted the name Christian Church.[19] During the same period, Elias Smith of Vermont and Abner Jones of New Hampshire led a movement espousing views similar to those of O'Kelly.[14]:68[20]:190 They believed that members could, by looking to scripture alone, simply be Christians without being bound to human traditions and the denominations brought by immigrants from Europe.[14]:68[20]:190 Stone movement Main article: Christians (Stone Movement) Barton W. Stone Wikisource has original text related to this article: Last Will and Testament of The Springfield Presbytery Barton W. Stone was born to John and Mary Warren Stone near Port Tobacco, Maryland on December 24, 1772.[21]:702 His immediate family was upper middle class, with connections to Maryland's upper class.[21]:702 Barton's father died in 1775, and his mother moved the family to Pittsylvania County, Virginia in 1779.[21]:702 Mary Stone was a member of the Church of England and Barton was christened by a priest named Thomas Thornton; after the move to Virginia she joined the Methodists.[22]:52 Barton was not himself notably religious as a young man; he found the competing claims of the Episcopalians, Baptists and Methodists confusing, and was much more interested in politics.[22]:52–53 (After the American Revolution the Church of England was disestablished and the Episcopal Church was organized.) Barton entered the Guilford Academy in North Carolina in 1790.[9]:71 While there, Stone heard James McGready (a Presbyterian minister) speak.[9]:72 A few years later, he was ordained as a Presbyterian minister.[9]:72 But, as Stone looked more deeply into the beliefs of the Presbyterians, especially the Westminster Confession of Faith, he doubted that some of the church beliefs were truly Bible-based.[9]:72–3 He was unable to accept the Calvinist doctrines of total depravity, unconditional election, and predestination.[9]:72–3 He also believed that "Calvinism's alleged theological sophistication had... been bought at the price of fomenting division" and "blamed it... for producing ten different sects within the Presbyterian tradition alone."[23]:110 Cane Ridge revival Interior of the original meeting house at Cane Ridge, Kentucky In 1801, the Cane Ridge Revival in Kentucky planted the seed for a movement in Kentucky and the Ohio River valley to disassociate from denominationalism. In 1803 Stone and others withdrew from the Kentucky Presbytery and formed the Springfield Presbytery. The defining event of the Stone wing of the movement was the publication of Last Will and Testament of The Springfield Presbytery, at Cane Ridge, Kentucky, in 1804. The Last Will is a brief document in which Stone and five others announced their withdrawal from Presbyterianism and their intention to be solely part of the body of Christ.[24] The writers appealed for the unity of all who follow Jesus, suggested the value of congregational self-governance, and lifted the Bible as the source for understanding the will of God. They denounced the divisive use of the Augsburg Confession,[8]:79 and adopted the name "Christian" to identify their group.[8]:80 Christian Connection By 1804 Elias Smith had heard of the Stone movement, and the O'Kelly movement by 1808.[20]:190 The three groups merged by 1810.[20]:190 At that time the combined movement had a membership of approximately 20,000.[20]:190 This loose fellowship of churches was called by the names "Christian Connection/Connexion" or "Christian Church."[14]:68[20]:190 Characteristics of the Stone movement The cornerstone for the Stone movement was Christian freedom.[14]:104 This ideal of freedom led them to reject all the historical creeds, traditions and theological systems that had developed over time and to focus instead on a primitive Christianity based on the Bible.[14]:104–5 While restoring primitive Christianity was central to the Stone movement, they believed that restoring the lifestyle of members of the early church as essential. During the early years, they "focused more... on holy and righteous living than on the forms and structures of the early church.[14]:103 The group also worked to restore the primitive church.[14]:104 Due to concern that emphasizing particular practices could undermine Christian freedom, this effort tended to take the form of rejecting tradition rather than an explicit program of reconstructing New Testament practices.[14]:104 The emphasis on freedom was so strong that the movement avoided developing any ecclesiastical traditions; it was "largely without dogma, form, or structure."[14]:104–5 What held "the movement together was a commitment to primitive Christianity."[14]:105 Another theme was that of hastening the millennium.[14]:104 Many Americans of the period believed that the millennium was near and based their hopes for the millennium on their new nation, the United States.[14]:104 Members of the Stone movement believed that only a unified Christianity based on the apostolic church, rather than a country or any of the existing denominations, could lead to the coming of the millennium.[14]:104 Stone's millennialism has been described as more "apocalyptic" than that of Alexander Campbell, in that he believed people were too flawed to usher in a millennial age through human progress.[25]:6,7 Rather, he believed that it depended on the power of God, and that while waiting for God to establish His kingdom, one should live as if the rule of God were already fully established.[25]:6 For the Stone movement, this millennial emphasis had less to do with eschatological theories and more about a countercultural commitment to live as if the kingdom of God were already established on earth.[25]:6,7 This apocalyptic perspective or world view led many in the Stone movement to adopt pacifism, avoid participating in civil government, and reject violence, militarism, greed, materialism and slavery.[25]:6 Campbell movement Main article: Disciples of Christ (Campbell Movement) Wikisource has original text related to this article: Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington Thomas Campbell The Campbell wing of the movement was launched when Thomas Campbell published the Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington in 1809.[8]:108–11 The Presbyterian Synod had suspended his ministerial credentials. In The Declaration and Address, he set forth some of his convictions about the church of Jesus Christ. He organized the Christian Association of Washington, in Washington County, Pennsylvania on the western frontier of the state, not as a church but as an association of persons seeking to grow in faith.[8]:108–11 On May 4, 1811, the Christian Association reconstituted itself as a congregationally governed church. With the building it constructed at Brush Run, Pennsylvania, it became known as Brush Run Church.[8]:117 When their study of the New Testament led the reformers to begin to practice baptism by immersion, the nearby Redstone Baptist Association invited Brush Run Church to join with them for the purpose of fellowship. The reformers agreed, provided that they would be "allowed to preach and to teach whatever they learned from the Scriptures."[26]:86 Alexander Campbell Thomas' son Alexander came to the US to join him in 1809.[14]:106 Before long, he assumed the leading role in the movement.[14]:106 The Campbells worked within the Redstone Baptist Association during the period 1815 through 1824. While both the Campbells and the Baptists shared practices of baptism by immersion and congregational polity, it quickly became clear the Campbells and their associates were not traditional Baptists. Within the Redstone Association, some of the Baptist leaders considered the differences intolerable when Alexander Campbell began publishing a journal, The Christian Baptist, which promoted reform. Campbell anticipated the conflict and moved his membership to a congregation of the Mahoning Baptist Association in 1824.[8]:131 Alexander used The Christian Baptist to address what he saw as the key issue of reconstructing the apostolic Christian community in a systematic and rational manner.[14]:106 He wanted to clearly distinguish between essential and non-essential aspects of primitive Christianity.[14]:106 Among what he identified as essential were "congregational autonomy, a plurality of elders in each congregation, weekly communion and immersion for the remission of sins."[14]:106 Among practices he rejected as non-essential were "the holy kiss, deaconesses, communal living, footwashing and charismatic exercises."[14]:106 Walter Scott In 1827, the Mahoning Association appointed Walter Scott as an evangelist. Through Scott's efforts, the Mahoning Association grew rapidly. In 1828, Thomas Campbell visited several of the congregations formed by Scott and heard him preach. Campbell believed that Scott was bringing an important new dimension to the movement with his approach to evangelism.[8]:132–3 Several Baptist associations began disassociating congregations that refused to subscribe to the Philadelphia Confession.[27] The Mahoning Association came under attack. In 1830, The Mahoning Baptist Association disbanded. The younger Campbell ceased publication of the Christian Baptist. In January 1831, he began publication of the Millennial Harbinger.[8]:144–5 Influence of the Enlightenment The Age of Enlightenment had a significant influence on the Campbell movement.[14]:80–6 Thomas Campbell was a student of the Enlightenment philosopher John Locke.[14]:82 While he did not explicitly use the term "essentials" in the Declaration and Address, Thomas proposed the same solution to religious division as had been advanced earlier by Herbert and Locke: "[R]educe religion to a set of essentials upon which all reasonable persons might agree."[14]:80 The essentials he identified were those practices for which the Bible provided: "a 'Thus saith the Lord,' either in express terms or by approved precedent."[14]:81 Unlike Locke, who considered the earlier efforts by Puritans to be inherently divisive, Thomas argued for "a complete restoration of apostolic Christianity."[14]:82 Thomas believed that creeds served to divide Christians. He also believed that the Bible was clear enough that anyone could understand it and, thus, creeds were unnecessary.[28]:114 Alexander Campbell was also deeply influenced by Enlightenment thinking, in particular the Scottish School of Common Sense of Thomas Reid and Dugald Stewart.[14]:84 This group believed that the Bible related concrete facts rather than abstract truths, and advocated a scientific or "Baconian" approach to interpreting the Bible. It would begin with those facts, arrange the ones applicable to a given topic, and draw conclusions from them in a way that has been described as "nothing less than the scientific method applied to the Bible."[14]:84 Alexander reflected this Baconian approach when he repeatedly argued that "the Bible is a book of facts, not of opinions, theories, abstract generalities, nor of verbal definitions."[14]:84 Just as a reliance on facts provides the basis for agreement among scientists, Alexander believed that if Christians limited themselves to the facts found in the Bible they would necessarily come to agreement.[14]:84 He believed that those facts, approached in a rational and scientific manner, provided a blueprint or constitution for the church.[14]:85 Alexander was attracted to this scientific approach to the Bible because it offered a reliable basis for Christian unity.[14]:84 Characteristics of the Campbell movement Thomas Campbell combined the Enlightenment approach to unity with the Reformed and Puritan traditions of restoration.[14]:82,106 The Enlightenment affected the Campbell movement in two ways. First, it provided the idea that Christian unity could be achieved by finding a set of essentials that all reasonable people could agree on. Second, it also provided the concept of a rational faith that was formulated and defended based on facts derived from the Bible.[14]:85,86 Campbell's solution to achieve Christian unity combined forsaking the creeds and traditions, which he believed had divided Christians, and recovering the primitive Christianity, found in scripture, that was common for all Christians.[14]:106 Alexander Campbell's millennialism was more optimistic than Stone's.[25]:6 He had more confidence in the potential for human progress and believed that Christians could unite to transform the world and initiate a millennial age.[25]:6 Campbell's conceptions were postmillennial, as he anticipated that the progress of the church and society would lead to an age of peace and righteousness before the return of Christ.[25]:6 This optimistic approach meant that, in addition to his commitment to primitivism, he had a progressive strand in his thinking.[25]:7 Merger of the Stone and Campbell movements The Campbell movement was characterized by a "systematic and rational reconstruction" of the early church, in contrast to the Stone movement, which was characterized by radical freedom and lack of dogma.[14]:106–8 Despite their differences, the two movements agreed on several critical issues.[14]:108 Both saw restoring apostolic Christianity as a means of hastening the millennium.[14]:108 Both also saw restoring the early church as a route to Christian freedom.[14]:108 And both believed that unity among Christians could be achieved by using apostolic Christianity as a model.[14]:108 The commitment of both movements to restoring the early church and to uniting Christians was enough to motivate a union between many in the two movements.[25]:8,9 "Raccoon" John Smith The Stone and Campbell movements merged in 1832.[7]:28[26]:116–20[29]:212[30]:xxi[31]:xxxvii This was formalized at the High Street Meeting House in Lexington, Kentucky with a handshake between Barton W. Stone and "Raccoon" John Smith.[26]:116–20 Smith had been chosen by attendees as spokesman for the followers of the Campbells.[26]:116 A preliminary meeting of the two groups had been held in late December 1831, culminating with the merger on January 1, 1832.[26]:116–20[31]:xxxvii Two representatives of the assembly were appointed to carry the news of the union to all the churches: John Rogers, for the Christians and "Raccoon" John Smith for the reformers. Despite some challenges, the merger succeeded.[8]:153–4 Many believed the union held great promise for the future success of the combined movement, and greeted the news enthusiastically.[25]:9 When Stone and Alexander Campbell's Reformers (also known as Disciples and Christian Baptists) united in 1832, only a minority of Christians from the Smith/Jones and O'Kelly movements participated.[20]:190 Those who did were from congregations west of the Appalachian Mountains that had come into contact with the Stone movement.[20]:190 The eastern members had several key differences with the Stone and Campbell group: an emphasis on conversion experience, quarterly observance of communion, and nontrinitarianism.[20]:190 Those who did not unite with Campbell merged with the Congregational Churches in 1931 to form the Congregational Christian Churches.[20]:191 In 1957, the Congregational Christian Church merged with the Evangelical and Reformed Church to become the United Church of Christ.[20]:191 United movement (1832-1906) The merger raised the question of what to call the new movement. Finding a biblical, non-sectarian name was important. Stone wanted to continue to use the name "Christians," while Alexander Campbell insisted upon "Disciples of Christ".[8]:27–8[32]:125 Stone advocated using the name "Christians" based on its use in Acts 11:26, while Campbell preferred the term "disciples" because he saw it as both a more humble and an older designation.[11]:551 As a result, both names were used, and the confusion over names has continued ever since.[8]:27–8 After 1832, use of the term "Reformation" became frequent among leaders of the movement.[11]:551 The Campbells had designated themselves as "Reformers," and other early leaders also saw themselves as reformers seeking Christian unity and restoring apostolic Christianity.[11]:551 The movement's language at the time included phrases such as "religious reformation," the "present reformation," the "current reformation" and "the cause of reformation."[11]:551 The term "Restoration Movement" became popular as the 19th century progressed.[11]:551 It appears to have been inspired by Alexander Campbell's essays on "A Restoration of the Ancient Order of Things" in the Christian Baptist.[11]:551 The combined movement grew rapidly over the period from 1832 to 1906.[33]:92–93[34]:25 According to the 1906 U.S. Religious Census the combined membership of the movement made it the 6th largest denominational family in the country at that time.[34]:27 Estimated Membership Year 1832 1860 1890 1900 1906 Membership 22,000[33]:92 192,000[33]:92 641,051[34]:25 1,120,000[33]:93 1,142,359[34]:25 Journals “ The Disciples do not have bishops; they have editors ” — saying attributed to early movement historian William Thomas Moore[35] From the beginning of the movement, the free exchange of ideas among the people was fostered by the journals published by its leaders. Alexander Campbell published The Christian Baptist and The Millennial Harbinger. Stone published The Christian Messenger.[29]:208 Both men routinely published the contributions of persons whose positions differed radically from their own. Following Campbell's death in 1866, the journals were used to keep the discussions going. Between 1870 and 1900, two journals emerged as the most prominent. The Christian Standard was edited and published by Isaac Errett of Cincinnati, Ohio. The Christian Evangelist was edited and published by J.H. Garrison from St. Louis. The two men enjoyed a friendly rivalry, and kept the dialog going within the movement.[29]:364 The Gospel Advocate was founded by the Nashville-area preacher Tolbert Fanning in 1855.[36]:361 Fanning's student, William Lipscomb, served as co-editor until the American Civil War forced them to suspend publication in 1861.[36]:361 After the end of the Civil War, publication resumed in 1866 under the editorship of Fanning and William Lipscomb's younger brother David Lipscomb; Fanning soon retired and David Lipscomb became the sole editor.[36]:361–362 While David Lipscomb was the editor, the focus was on seeking unity by following scripture exactly, and the Advocate's editorial position was to reject anything that is not explicitly allowed by scripture.[36]:362 The Christian Oracle began publication in 1884. It was later known as The Christian Century and offered an interdenominational appeal.[29]:364 In 1914, Garrison's Christian Publishing company was purchased by R.A. Long. He established a non-profit corporation, "The Christian Board of Publication" as the Brotherhood publishing house.[29]:426 Missionary society controversy In 1849, the first National Convention was held at Cincinnati, Ohio.[29]:245 Alexander Campbell had concerns that holding conventions would lead the movement into divisive denominationalism. He did not attend the gathering.[29]:245 Among its actions, the convention elected Alexander Campbell its President and created the American Christian Missionary Society (ACMS).[29]:247 By the end of the century, the Foreign Christian Missionary Society and the Christian Woman's Board of Missions were also engaged in missionary activities. Forming the ACMS did not reflect a consensus of the entire movement, and these para-church organizations became a divisive issue. While there was no disagreement over the need for evangelism, many believed that missionary societies were not authorized by scripture and would compromise the autonomy of local congregations.[37] The ACMS was not as successful as proponents had hoped.[38] It was opposed by those believed any extra-congregational organizations were inappropriate; hostility grew when the ACMS took a stand in 1863 favoring the Union side during the American Civil War.[38][39] A convention held in Louisville, Kentucky in 1869 adopted a plan intended to address "a perceived need to reorganize the American Christian Missionary Society (ACMS) in a way that would be acceptable to more members of the Movement."[38] The "Louisville Plan," as it came to be known, attempted to build on existing local and regional conventions and to "promote the harmonious cooperation of all the state and District Boards and Conventions."[38][40] It established a General Christian Missionary Convention (GCMC).[40] Membership was congregational rather than individual.[38][40] Local congregations elected delegates to district meetings, which in turn elected delegates to state meetings.[38] States were given two delegates, plus an additional delegate for every 5,000 members.[38] The plan proved divisive, and faced immediate opposition.[38][40] Opponents continued to argue that any organizational structure above the local congregational level was not authorized by scripture, and there was a general concern that the Board had been given too much authority.[38] By 1872 the Louisville Plan had effectively failed.[38][40] Direct contributions from individuals were sought again in 1873, individual membership was reinstated in 1881, and the name was changed back to the American Christian Missionary Society in 1895.[38][40] Use of musical instruments in worship Melodeon The use of musical instruments in worship was discussed in journal articles as early as 1849, but initial reactions were generally unfavorable.[41]:414 Some congregations, however, are documented as having used musical instruments in the 1850s and 1860s.[41]:414 An example is the church in Midway, Kentucky, which was using an instrument by 1860.[41]:414 A member of the congregation, L. L. Pinkerton, brought a melodeon into the church building.[41]:414[42]:95,96[43]:597–598 The minister had been distressed to his "breaking point" by the poor quality of the congregation's singing.[42]:96 At first, the instrument was used for singing practices held on Saturday night, but was soon used during the worship on Sunday.[42]:96 One of the elders of that assembly removed the first melodeon, but it was soon replaced by another.[42]:96 Both acceptance of instruments and discussion of the issue grew after the American Civil War.[41]:414 Opponents argued that the New Testament provided no authorization for their use in worship, while supporters argued on the basis of expediency and Christian liberty.[41]:414 Affluent, urban congregations were more likely to adopt musical instruments, while poorer and more rural congregations tended to see them as "an accommodation to the ways of the world."[41]:414 The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement notes that Restoration Movement historians have tended to interpret the controversy over the use of musical instruments in worship in ways that "reflect their own attitudes on the issue."[41]:414 Examples are given of historians from different branches of the movement interpreting it in relation to the statements of early Restoration Movement leaders, in terms of social and cultural factors, differing approaches to interpreting scripture, differing approaches to the authority of scripture, and "ecumenical progressivism" versus "sectarian primitivism."[41]:414–5 Role of clergy The early 19th-century Restoration Movement encompassed very different views concerning the role of clergy: the Campbell branch was strongly anti-clergy, believing there was no justification for a clergy/lay distinction, while the Stone branch believed that only an ordained minister could officiate at communion.[33] Biblical interpretation Early leaders of the movement had a high view of scripture, and believed that it was both inspired and infallible.[44]:77 Dissenting views developed during the 19th century.[44]:77 As early as 1849, L. L. Pinkerton denied the inerrancy of the Bible.[43]:597[44]:77 According to the Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement Pinkerton is "sometimes labeled the first 'liberal' of the Stone-Campbell Movement."[43]:597 In addition to rejecting the plenary inspiration of the Bible and supporting the use of instruments in worship, Pinkerton also supported "open membership" (recognizing as members individuals who have not been baptized by immersion)[45]:576 and was a strong supporter of the temperance and abolition movements.[43]:597–598 As the 19th century progressed, the denial of the inerrancy of the Bible slowly spread.[44]:77 In 1883 the editor of the Christian Standard, Isaac Errett, said "Admitting the fact of inspiration, have we in the inspired Scriptures an infallible guide?...I do not see how we can answer this question affirmatively."[44]:77 Others, including J. W. McGarvey, fiercely opposed these new liberal views.[44]:77 Separation of the Churches of Christ and Christian Churches David Lipscomb “ Nothing in life has given me more pain in heart than the separation from those I have heretofore worked with and loved ” — David Lipscomb, 1899[46] Factors leading to the separation Disagreement over centralized organizations above the local congregational level, such as missionary societies and conventions, was one important factor leading to the separation of the Churches of Christ from the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).[37] After the American Civil War more congregations began using instruments, which led to growing controversy.[41]:414 The greatest acceptance was among urban congregations in the Northern states; very few congregations in the Southern United States used instruments in worship.[41]:414–415 While music and the approach to missionary work were the most visible issues, there were also some deeper ones, such as basic were differences in the underlying approach to Biblical interpretation. For the Churches of Christ, any practices not present in accounts of New Testament worship were not permissible in the church, and they could find no New Testament documentation of the use of instrumental music in worship. For the Christian Churches, any practices not expressly forbidden could be considered.[8]:242–7 The American Civil War exacerbated the cultural tensions between the two groups.[47] As the 19th century progressed, a division gradually developed between those whose primary commitment was to unity, and those whose primary commitment was to the restoration of the primitive church.[25]:5,6 Those whose primary focus was unity gradually took on "an explicitly ecumenical agenda" and "sloughed off the restorationist vision."[25]:6 This group increasingly used the terms "Disciples of Christ" and "Christian Churches" rather than "Churches of Christ."[25]:6 At the same time, those whose primary focus was restoration of the primitive church increasingly used the term "Churches of Christ" rather than "Disciples of Christ."[25]:6 Reports on the changes and increasing separation among the groups were published as early as 1883.[8]:252 The rise of women leaders in the temperance[48]:728–729 and missionary movements, primarily in the North, also contributed to the separation of the Christian Churches and Churches of Christ. In the Christian Churches, many women spoke in public on behalf of the new Christian Woman's Board of Missions (CWBM) and Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). In contrast, the Churches of Christ largely discouraged women from joining activist women's organizations such as the WCTU and speaking in public about any issue.[49]:292–316 In 1889 the Erie Christian Church confirmed the leadership role of women by ordaining Clara Celestia Hale Babcock as the first known woman Disciple preacher.[50]:47–60 Formal recognition in 1906 The United States Census Bureau began a religious census in 1906.[51][52] Special Agents were used to collect information on those groups which had little or no formal organizational structure, such as the churches associated with the Restoration Movement.[51][52] Officials working on the census noticed signs that the movement was no longer unified: the Gospel Advocate appeared at times to distance itself from the Disciples of Christ, and the Bureau had received at least one letter claiming that some "churches of Christ" were no longer affiliated with the "Disciples of Christ."[51][52] The Restoration Movement (also known as the American Restoration Movement or the Stone-Campbell Movement, and pejoratively as Campbellism) is a Christian movement that began on the American frontier during the Second Great Awakening (1790–1870) of the early 19th century. The pioneers of this movement did not see themselves as establishing new denominations; rather, they sought to reform the church from within,[1] seeking to restore the church and "the unification of all Christians in a single body patterned after the church of the New Testament."[2]:54 It has been described as the "oldest ecumenical movement in America":[3] Both the great founding documents of the movement are authentically ecumenical. In The Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery (1804), Barton Stone and his fellow revivalists dissolved their exclusive presbyterial relationship, desiring to "sink into union with the Body of Christ at large." Five years later Thomas Campbell wrote in The Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington [PA] (1809) "The church of Christ on earth is essentially, intentionally and constitutionally one."[1] Members do not identify as Protestant but simply as Christian.[4][5][6]:213 The Restoration Movement developed from several independent efforts to return to apostolic Christianity, but two groups, which independently developed similar approaches to the Christian faith, were particularly important.[7]:27–32 The first, led by Barton W. Stone, began at Cane Ridge, Kentucky and called themselves simply "Christians". The second began in western Pennsylvania and Virginia (now West Virginia) and was led by Thomas Campbell and his son, Alexander Campbell; they used the name "Disciples of Christ". Both groups sought to restore the whole Christian church on the pattern set forth in the New Testament, and both believed that creeds kept Christianity divided. In 1832 they joined in fellowship with a handshake. Among other things, they were united in the belief that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God; that Christians should celebrate the Lord's Supper on the first day of each week; and that baptism of adult believers by immersion in water is a necessary condition for salvation. Because the founders wanted to abandon all denominational labels, they used the biblical names for the followers of Jesus.[8]:27 Both groups promoted a return to the purposes of the 1st-century churches as described in the New Testament. One historian of the movement has argued that it was primarily a unity movement, with the restoration motif playing a subordinate role.[9]:8 The Restoration Movement has since divided into multiple separate groups. There are three main branches in the US: the Churches of Christ, the Christian churches and churches of Christ, and the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Some characterize the divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism: the Churches of Christ and Christian churches and churches of Christ resolved the tension by stressing restoration, while the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) resolved the tension by stressing ecumenism.[9]:383 A number of groups outside the US also have historical associations with this movement, such as the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada[10] and the Churches of Christ in Australia. Because the Restoration Movement lacks any centralized structure, having originated in a variety of places with different leaders, there is no consistent nomenclature for the movement as a whole.[11]:551 The term "Restoration Movement" became popular during the 19th century;[11]:551 this appears to be due to the influence of Alexander Campbell's essays on "A Restoration of the Ancient Order of Things" in the Christian Baptist.[11]:551 The term "Stone-Campbell Movement" emerged towards the end of the 20th century as a way to avoid the difficulties associated with some of the other names that have been used, and to maintain a sense of the collective history of the movement.[11]:551 Other names that have been used include "the Brotherhood", "the Cause" and "the churches."[11]:551 While the use of the word "movement" is supported by a fairly broad consensus, no single terminology is generally accepted or has official status.[11]:551 |
About us|Jobs|Help|Disclaimer|Advertising services|Contact us|Sign in|Website map|Search|
GMT+8, 2015-9-11 21:27 , Processed in 0.152991 second(s), 16 queries .
