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Main article: Australian English phonology The primary way in which Australian English is distinctive from other varieties of English is through its unique pronunciation. It shares most similarity with other Southern Hemisphere accents, in particular New Zealand English.[9] Like most dialects of English it is distinguished primarily by its vowel phonology.[10] Vowels Australian English monophthongs[11] Australian English diphthongs[11] The vowels of Australian English can be divided according to length. The long vowels, which include monophthongs and diphthongs, mostly correspond to the tense vowels used in analyses of Received Pronunciation (RP) as well as its centring diphthongs. The short vowels, consisting only of monophthongs, correspond to the RP lax vowels. There exist pairs of long and short vowels with overlapping vowel quality giving Australian English phonemic length distinction, which is unusual amongst the various dialects of English, though not unknown elsewhere, such as in regional south-eastern dialects of the UK and eastern seaboard dialects in the US.[12] As with General American and New Zealand English, the weak-vowel merger is complete in Australian English: unstressed /ɪ/ (sometimes written as /ɨ/ or /ᵻ/) is merged into /ə/ (schwa). short vowels long vowels monophthongs diphthongs IPA examples ʊ foot, hood, chook ɪ kit, bid, hid, e dress, led, head ə comma, about, winter æ trap, lad, had a strut, bud, hud ɔ lot, cloth, hot IPA examples ʉː goose, boo, who’d iː fleece, bead, heat eː square, bared, haired ɜː nurse, bird, heard æː bag, tan, bad[nb 1] aː start, palm, bath[nb 2] oː thought, north, force[nb 3] IPA examples ʊə cure, lure, tour[nb 4] ɪə near, beard, hear[nb 5] æɔ mouth, bowed, how’d əʉ goat, bode, hoed[nb 6] æɪ face, bait, hade ɑe price, bite, hide oɪ choice, boy, oil Jump up ^ Historical /æ/ has split into two phonemes, one long and one short, so that, for example, in some parts of Australia bad does not rhyme with lad, while in others it does, that is to say, lad has the long vowel. However, all Australian regions distinguish can [kæn] "know how to, be able to" from can [kæːn] "(tin)can, to can [vegetables, etc.]". Jump up ^ Many words historically containing /æ/ have /aː/ instead, however the extent to which this development has taken hold varies regionally. Jump up ^ oː tongue position in oː is back, and therefore Australian oː has a very different quality from Scots and Irish oː.[clarification needed] Jump up ^ The phoneme /ʊə/ is almost extinct with most speakers consistently using /ʉː.ə/ or /ʉː/ (before /r/) instead. Jump up ^ The boundary between monophthongs and diphthongs is somewhat fluid, /ɪə/, for example, is commonly realised as [ɪː], particularly in closed syllables, though also found in open syllables such as we're, here, and so on. In open syllables particularly the pronunciation varies from the bisyllabic [ɪːa] though the diphthong [ɪə] to the long vowel [ɪː]. Jump up ^ In the environment of syllable final /l/, the diphthong əʉ assimilates to the /l/, i.e. becomes ɔʊ, and the final /l/ can become [w] when followed by a consonant, thus /ɡəʉld/ "gold" > /ɡɔʊld/ > [ɡɔʊwd], thus forming a minimal pair with /ɡəʉd/ "goad". Consonants There is little variation with respect to the sets of consonants used in various English dialects. There are, however, variations in how these consonants are used. Australian English is no exception. Consonant phonemes of Australian English[13] Bilabial Labio- dental Dental Alveolar Post- alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal m n ŋ Plosive p b t d k ɡ Affricate tʃ dʒ Fricative f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h Approximant r j w Lateral l Australian English is non-rhotic; in other words, the /r/ sound does not appear at the end of a syllable or immediately before a consonant. However, a linking /r/ can occur when a word that has a final <r> in the spelling comes before another word that starts with a vowel. An intrusive /r/ may similarly be inserted before a vowel in words that do not have <r> in the spelling in certain environments, namely after the long vowel /oː/ and after word final /ə/. There is some degree of allophonic variation in the alveolar stops. As with North American English, Intervocalic alveolar flapping is a feature of Australian English: prevocalic /t/ and /d/ surface as the alveolar tap [ɾ] after sonorants other than /ŋ/, /m/as well as at the end of a word or morpheme before any vowel in the same breath group. For many speakers, /t/ and /d/ in the combinations /tr/-/tw/ and /dr/-/dw/ are also palatalised, thus /tʃr/-/tʃw/ and /dʒr/-/dʒw/, as Australian /r/ is only very slightly retroflex, the tip remaining below the level of the bottom teeth in the same position as for /w/; it is also somewhat rounded ("to say 'r' the way Australians do you need to say 'w' at the same time"), where older English /wr/ and /r/ have fallen together as /ʷr/. The wine–whine merger is complete in Australian English. Yod-dropping occurs after /r/, /l/, /s/, /z/, /θ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/, /j/ and /ɹ/, . Other cases of /sj/ and /zj/, along with /tj/ and /dj/, have coalesced to /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ respectively for many speakers. /j/ is generally retained in other consonant clusters. Pronunciation Differences in stress, weak forms and standard pronunciation of isolated words occur between Australian English and other forms of English, which while noticeable do not impair intelligibility. The affixes -ary, -ery, -ory, -bury, -berry and -mony (seen in words such as necessary, mulberry and matrimony) can be pronounced either with a full vowel or a schwa. Although some words like necessary are almost universally pronounced with the full vowel, older generations of Australians are relatively likely to pronounce these affixes with a schwa while younger generations are relatively likely to use a full vowel. Words ending in unstressed -ile derived from Latin adjectives ending in -ilis are pronounced with a full vowel (/ɑel/), so that fertile rhymes with fur tile rather than turtle. In addition, miscellaneous pronunciation differences exist when compared with other varieties of English in relation to seemingly random words. For example, the vowel in yoghurt is pronounced as /əʉ/ ("long 'O'") rather than /ɔ/ ("short o"). Similarly, vitamin is pronounced with /ɑe/ ("long 'I'") in the first syllable, rather than /ɪ/ ("short 'I'"). Despite this, advertisement is pronounced with /ɪ/. Brooch is pronounced with /əʉ/ as opposed to /ʉː/, and Anthony with /θ/ rather than /t/. Variation Main article: Variation in Australian English Academic research has shown that the most notable variation within Australian English is largely sociocultural. This is mostly evident in phonology, which is divided into three sociocultural varieties: broad, general and cultivated.[14] A limited range of word choices is strongly regional in nature. Consequently, the geographical background of individuals can be inferred, if they use words that are peculiar to particular Australian states or territories and, in some cases, even smaller regions. In addition, some Australians speak creole languages derived from Australian English, such as Australian Kriol, Torres Strait Creole and Norfuk. Sociocultural The broad, general and cultivated accents form a continuum that reflects minute variations in the Australian accent. They can reflect the social class, education and urban or rural background of speakers, though such indicators are not always reliable.[15] According to linguists, the general Australian variant emerged some time before 1900.[16] Recent generations have seen a comparatively smaller proportion of the population speaking with the broad variant, along with the near extinction of the cultivated Australian accent.[17][18] The growth and dominance of general Australian accents perhaps reflects its prominence on radio and television during the late 20th century. Australian Aboriginal English is made up of a range of forms which developed differently in different parts of Australia, and are said to vary along a continuum, from forms close to Standard Australian English to more non-standard forms. There are distinctive features of accent, grammar, words and meanings, as well as language use. The ethnocultural dialects are diverse accents in Australian English that are spoken by the minority groups, which are of non-English speaking background.[19] A massive immigration from Asia has made a large increase in diversity and the will for people to show their cultural identity within the Australian context.[20] These ethnocultural varieties contain features of General Australian English as adopted by the children of immigrants blended with some non-English language features, such as the Afro-Asiatic and Asian languages. Regional variation Although Australian English is relatively homogeneous, some regional variations are notable. The dialects of English spoken in South Australia, Western Australia, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, Queensland and the Torres Strait Islands differ slightly from each other. Differences exist both in terms of vocabulary and phonology. Most regional differences come down to word usage. For example, swimming clothes are known as cossies or swimmers in New South Wales, togs in Queensland, and bathers in Victoria, Western Australia and South Australia; what is referred to as a stroller in most of Australia is called a pusher in Victoria and usually a pram in Western Australia.[21] Preference for synonymous words also differs between states. For example, garbage (i.e. garbage bin, garbage truck) dominates over rubbish in New South Wales and Queensland, while rubbish is more popular in Victoria, Western Australia and South Australia.[21] The word footy generally refers to the most popular football code in the particular state or territory; that is, rugby league in New South Wales and Queensland, and Australian rules football elsewhere. Beer glasses are also named differently in different states. Distinctive grammatical patterns exist such as the use of the interrogative eh?. There are some notable regional variations in the pronunciations of certain words. The extent to which the trap‑bath split has taken hold is one example. This phonological development is more advanced in South Australia, which had a different settlement chronology and type than other parts of the country. Words such as dance, advance, plant, graph, example and answer are pronounced far more frequently with the older /æ/ (as in mad) outside of South Australia, but with the British-influenced /a/ (as in father) within South Australia.[21] L-vocalisation is also more common in South Australia than other states. In Western Australian English the vowels in near and square are typically realised as centring diphthongs, whereas in the eastern states they may also be realised as monophthongs.[22] A feature common in Victorian English is salary–celery merger. There is also regional variation in /uː/ before /l/. Vocabulary Main article: Australian English vocabulary Bush poets such as Banjo Paterson captured the Australian vocabulary of the 19th century in their bush ballads. Australian English has many words and idioms which are unique to the dialect and have been written on extensively, with the Macquarie Dictionary, widely regarded as the national standard, incorporating numerous Australian terms.[23] Internationally well-known examples of Australian terminology include outback, meaning a remote, sparsely populated area, the bush, meaning either a native forest or a country area in general, and g'day, a greeting. Dinkum, or fair dinkum means "true", or "is that true?", among other things, depending on context and inflection.[24] The derivative dinky-di means "true" or devoted: a "dinky-di Aussie" is a "true Australian". Australian poetry, such as "The Man from Snowy River" as well as folk songs such as "Waltzing Matilda", contain many historical Australian words and phrases that are understood by Australians even though some are not in common usage today. Australian English, in common with several British English dialects (for example, Cockney, Scouse, Glaswegian and Geordie), uses the word mate. Many words used by Australians were at one time used in England but have since fallen out of usage or changed in meaning there. For example, creek in Australia, as in North America, means a stream or small river, whereas in the UK it means a small watercourse flowing into the sea; paddock in Australia means field, whereas in the UK it means a small enclosure for livestock; bush or scrub in Australia, as in North America, means a wooded area, whereas in England they are commonly used only in proper names (such as Shepherd's Bush and Wormwood Scrubs). Litotes, such as "not bad", "not much" and "you're not wrong", are also used, as are diminutives, which are commonly used and are often used to indicate familiarity. Some common examples are arvo (afternoon), barbie (barbecue), smoko (cigarette break), Aussie (Australian) and pressie (present/gift). This may also be done with people's names to create nicknames (other English speaking countries create similar diminutives). For example, "Gazza" from Gary, or "Smitty" from John Smith. The use of the suffix -o originates in Irish Gaelic[citation needed] (Irish ó), which is both a postclitic and a suffix with much the same meaning as in Australian English. In informal speech, incomplete comparisons are sometimes used, such as "sweet as" (as in "That car is sweet as."). "Full", "fully" or "heaps" may precede a word to act as an intensifier (as in "The waves at the beach were heaps good."). This was more common in regional Australia and South Australia but has been in common usage in urban Australia for decades. The suffix "-ly" is sometimes omitted in broader Australian English. For instance "real good" instead of "really good". Australia's switch to the metric system in the 1970s changed the country's vocabulary of measurement from Imperial towards metric measures.[25][26] Comparison with other varieties Where British and American vocabulary differs, Australians sometimes favour an Australian English usage, as with footpath (for US sidewalk, UK pavement) or capsicum (for US bell pepper, UK green/red pepper). In other instances, it either shares a term with American English, as with truck (UK: lorry) or eggplant (UK: aubergine), or with British English, as with mobile phone (US: cell phone) or bonnet (US: hood). A non-exhaustive selection of common British English terms not commonly used in Australian English include (Australian usage in brackets): artic/articulated lorry (semi-trailer); aubergine (eggplant); bank holiday (public holiday); bedsit (one-bedroom apartment); bespoke (custom); black pudding (blood sausage); cagoule (raincoat); candy floss (fairy floss); cash machine (automatic teller machine/ATM)); child-minder (babysitter); clingfilm (glad wrap/cling-wrap); courgette (zucchini); crisps (chips/potato chips); doddle (bludge); dungarees (overalls); dustbin (garbage/rubbish bin); dustcart (garbage/rubbish truck); duvet (doona); elastoplast/plaster (band-aid); estate car (station wagon); fairy cake (cupcake/patty cake); flannel ((face) washer/wash cloth); free phone (toll-free); football (soccer); high street (main street); hoover (vacuum cleaner); ice lolly (ice block/icy pole); kitchen roll (paper towel); lavatory (toilet); lorry (truck); off-licence (bottle shop); pavement (footpath); red/green pepper (capsicum); pillar box (mail box); plimsoll (sandshoe); pushchair (pram/stroller); saloon (sedan); sweets (lollies); utility room (laundry); Wellington boots (gumboots). A non-exhaustive list of American English terms not commonly found in Australian English include: acclimate (acclimatise); aluminum (aluminium); bangs (fringe); bell pepper (capsicum); bellhop (hotel porter); broil (grill); burglarize (rob); busboy (included under the broader term of waiter/waitress; rarely, table clearer); candy (lolly); cell phone (mobile phone); cilantro (coriander); cookie (biscuit); counter-clockwise (anticlockwise); diaper (nappy); emergency brake (handbrake); faucet (tap); flashlight (torch); gasoline (petrol); hood (bonnet); jell-o (jelly); jelly (jam); math (maths); pacifier (dummy); parking lot (car park); popsicle (ice block/icy pole); railway ties (sleepers); row house (terrace house); scallion (spring onion); stickshift (manual transmission); streetcar (tram); takeout (takeaway); trash can (garbage/rubbish bin); trunk (boot); turn signal (indicator/blinker); vacation (holiday). Terms shared by British and American English but not so commonly found in Australian English include: abroad (overseas); cooler/ice box (esky); pickup truck (ute); wildfire (bushfire). In addition, a number of words in Australian English have different meanings to those ascribed in other varieties of English. Clothing-related examples are notable. Pants in Australian English refer to British English trousers but in British English refer to Australian English underpants; vest in Australian English refers to British English waistcoat but in British English refers to Australian English singlet; thong in both American and British English refers to underwear otherwise known as a G-string while in Australian English it refers to British and American English flip-flop. Grammar As with American English, but unlike British English, collective nouns are almost always singular in construction, e.g. the government was unable to decide as opposed to the government were unable to decide. In common with British English, the past tense and past participles of the verbs learn, spell and smell are often irregular (learnt, spelt, smelt). Shan't and the use of should as in I should be happy if..., common in upper-register British English, are almost never encountered in Australian (or North American) English. While prepositions before days may be omitted in American English, i.e. She resigned Thursday, they must be retained in Australian English, as in British English: She resigned on Thursday. Ranges of dates use to, i.e. Monday to Friday, as with British English, rather than Monday through Friday in American English. River generally follows the name of the river in question as in North America, i.e. Darling River, rather than the British convention of coming before the name, e.g. River Thames. Note in South Australia however, the British convention applies—for example, the River Murray or the River Torrens. When saying or writing out numbers, and is inserted before the tens and units, i.e. one hundred and sixty-two, as with British practice. However Australians, like Americans, are more likely to pronounce numbers such as 1200 as twelve hundred, rather than one thousand two hundred. As with American English, on the weekend and studied medicine are used rather than the British at the weekend and read medicine. The earliest form of Australian English was first spoken by the children of the colonists born into the colony of New South Wales. This very first generation of children created a new dialect that was to become the language of the nation. The Australian-born children in the new colony were exposed to a wide range of different dialects from all over the British Isles, in particular from Ireland and South East England.[3] The native-born children of the colony created the new dialect from factors present in the speech they heard around them, and provided an avenue for the expression of peer solidarity. Even when new settlers arrived, this new dialect was strong enough to deflect the influence of other patterns of speech. A large part of the convict body were of Irish origin, 25% of the total convict population. Many had been arrested in Ireland, and some in Great Britain. Many, if not most of the Irish convicts spoke either no English at all, or spoke it poorly and rarely. There were other significant populations of convicts from non-English speaking areas of Britain, such as the Scottish Highlands and Wales. Records from the early 19th century indicate the distinct dialect that had surfaced in the colonies since first settlement in 1788,[2] with Peter Miller Cunningham's 1827 book Two Years in New South Wales, describing the distinctive accent and vocabulary of the native born colonists, different from that of their parents and with a strong London influence.[3] Anthony Burgess writes that "Australian English may be thought of as a kind of fossilised Cockney of the Dickensian era".[4] The Australian gold rushes saw many external influences adopted into the language. The first of the Australian gold rushes, in the 1850s, began a large wave of immigration, during which about two per cent of the population of the United Kingdom emigrated to the colonies of New South Wales and Victoria.[5] According to linguist Bruce Moore, "the major input of the various sounds that went into constructing the Australian accent was from south-east England".[3] Some elements of Aboriginal languages have been adopted by Australian English—mainly as names for places, flora and fauna (for example dingo) and local culture. Many such are localised, and do not form part of general Australian use, while others, such as kangaroo, boomerang, budgerigar, wallaby and so on have become international. Other examples are cooee and hard yakka. The former is used as a high-pitched call, for attracting attention, (pronounced /kʉː.iː/) which travels long distances. Cooee is also a notional distance: if he's within cooee, we'll spot him. Hard yakka means hard work and is derived from yakka, from the Jagera/Yagara language once spoken in the Brisbane region. Also from there is the word bung, from the Sydney pidgin English (and ultimately from the Sydney Aboriginal language), meaning "dead", with some extension to "broken" or "useless". Many towns or suburbs of Australia have also been influenced or named after Aboriginal words. The most well known example is the capital, Canberra, named after a local language word meaning "meeting place".[6] Among the changes starting in the 19th century was the introduction of words, spellings, terms and usages from North American English. The words imported included some later considered to be typically Australian, such as bushwhacker and squatter.[7] This American influence continued with the popularity of American films, and with the influx of American military personnel in World War II; seen in the enduring persistence of such terms as okay, you guys and gee.[8] Australian English (AusE, AuE, AusEng, en-AU[1]) is a major variety of the English language and is used throughout Australia. Although English has no official status in the Constitution, Australian English is Australia's de facto official language and is the first language of the majority of the population. Australian English began to diverge from British English after the founding of the colony of New South Wales in 1788 and was recognised as being different from British English by 1820. It arose from the intermingling of early settlers from a great variety of mutually intelligible dialectal regions of the British Isles and quickly developed into a distinct variety of English.[2] Australian English differs from other varieties of English in vocabulary, accent, pronunciation, register, grammar and spelling. |
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