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Post-colonialism (or post-colonial theory) can refer to a set of theories in philosophy and literature that grapple with the legacy of colonial rule. In this sense, postcolonial literature may be considered a branch of postmodern literature concerned with the political and cultural independence of peoples formerly subjugated in colonial empires. Many practitioners take Edward Saïd's book Orientalism (1978) as the theory's founding work (although French theorists such as Aimé Césaire and Frantz Fanon made similar claims decades before Said). Saïd analyzed the works of Balzac, Baudelaire and Lautréamont arguing that they helped to shape a societal fantasy of European racial superiority. Writers of post-colonial fiction interact with the traditional colonial discourse, but modify or subvert it; for instance by retelling a familiar story from the perspective of an oppressed minor character in the story. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's Can the Subaltern Speak? (1998) gave its name to Subaltern Studies. In A Critique of Postcolonial Reason (1999), Spivak argued that major works of European metaphysics (such as those of Kant and Hegel) not only tend to exclude the subaltern from their discussions, but actively prevent non-Europeans from occupying positions as fully human subjects. Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (1807), famous for its explicit ethnocentrism, considers Western civilization as the most accomplished of all, while Kant also had some traces of racialism in his work. Impact of colonialism and colonization Main article: Impact and evaluation of colonialism and colonization File:Nieuws uit Indonesië, het werk van de Nederlandse dienst voor Volksgezondheid Weeknummer 46-21 - Open Beelden - 16742.ogv The Dutch Public Health Service provides medical care for the natives of the Dutch East Indies, May 1946 The impacts of colonization are immense and pervasive.[28] Various effects, both immediate and protracted, include the spread of virulent diseases, unequal social relations, exploitation, enslavement, medical advances, the creation of new institutions, abolitionism,[29] improved infrastructure,[30] and technological progress.[31] Colonial practices also spur the spread of colonist languages, literature and cultural institutions, while endangering or obliterating those of native peoples. The native cultures of the colonized peoples can also have a powerful influence on the imperial country.[citation needed] Trade and commerce Economic expansion has accompanied imperial expansion since ancient times.[citation needed] Greek trade-networks spread throughout the Mediterranean region, while Roman trade expanded with the main goal of directing tribute from the colonized areas towards the Roman metropole. According to Strabo, by the time of emperor Augustus, up to 120 Roman ships would set sail every year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India.[32] With the development of trade routes under the Ottoman Empire, Gujari Hindus, Syrian Muslims, Jews, Armenians, Christians from south and central Europe operated trading routes that supplied Persian and Arab horses to the armies of all three empires, Mocha coffee to Delhi and Belgrade, Persian silk to India and Istanbul.[33] Aztec civilization developed into a large empire that, much like the Roman Empire, had the goal of exacting tribute from the conquered colonial areas. For the Aztecs, the most important tribute was the acquisition of sacrificial victims for their religious rituals.[34] On the other hand, European colonial empires sometimes attempted to channel, restrict and impede trade involving their colonies, funnelling activity through the metropole and taxing accordingly. Slaves and indentured servants Further information: Atlantic slave trade, Indentured servant, Coolie and Blackbirding Slave memorial in Zanzibar. The Sultan of Zanzibar complied with British demands that slavery be banned in Zanzibar and that all the slaves be freed. European nations entered their imperial projects with the goal of enriching the European metropole. Exploitation of non-Europeans and other Europeans to support imperial goals was acceptable to the colonizers. Two outgrowths of this imperial agenda were slavery and indentured servitude. In the 17th century, nearly two-thirds of English settlers came to North America as indentured servants.[35] African slavery had existed long before Europeans discovered it as an exploitable means of creating an inexpensive labour force for the colonies. Europeans brought transportation technology to the practise, bringing large numbers of African slaves to the Americas by sail. Spain and Portugal had brought African slaves to work at African colonies such as Cape Verde and the Azores, and then Latin America, by the 16th century. The British, French and Dutch joined in the slave trade in subsequent centuries. Ultimately, around 11 million Africans were taken to the Caribbean and North and South America as slaves by European colonizers.[36] European empire Colonial destination Number of slaves imported[36] Portuguese Empire Brazil 3,646,800 British Empire British Caribbean 1,665,000 French Empire French Caribbean 1,600,200 Spanish Empire Latin America 1,552,100 Dutch Empire Dutch Caribbean 500,000 British Empire British North America 399,000 Slave traders in Senegal. For centuries Africans had sold other Africans to the Arabs and Europeans as slaves. Abolitionists in Europe and America protested the inhumane treatment of African slaves, which led to the elimination of the slave trade by the late 18th century. The labour shortage that resulted inspired European colonizers to develop a new source of labour, using a system of indentured servitude. Indentured servants consented to a contract with the European colonizers. Under their contract, the servant would work for an employer for a term of at least a year, while the employer agreed to pay for the servant's voyage to the colony, possibly pay for the return to the country of origin, and pay the employee a wage as well. The employee was "indentured" to the employer because they owed a debt back to the employer for their travel expense to the colony, which they were expected to pay through their wages. In practice, indentured servants were exploited through terrible working conditions and burdensome debts created by the employers, with whom the servants had no means of negotiating the debt once they arrived in the colony. India and China were the largest source of indentured servants during the colonial era. Indentured servants from India travelled to British colonies in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean, and also to French and Portuguese colonies, while Chinese servants travelled to British and Dutch colonies. Between 1830 and 1930, around 30 million indentured servants migrated from India, and 24 million returned to India. China sent more indentured servants to European colonies, and around the same proportion returned to China.[37] Following the Scramble for Africa, an early but secondary focus for most colonial regimes was the suppression of slavery and the slave trade. By the end of the colonial period they were mostly successful in this aim, though slavery is still very active in Africa.[29] Military innovation Imperial expansion follows military conquest in most instances. Imperial armies therefore have a long history of military innovation in order to gain an advantage over the armies of the people they aim to conquer. Greeks developed the phalanx system, which enabled their military units to present themselves to their enemies as a wall, with foot soldiers using shields to cover one another during their advance on the battlefield. Under Philip II of Macedon, they were able to organize thousands of soldiers into a formidable battle force, bringing together carefully trained infantry and cavalry regiments.[38] Alexander the Great exploited this military foundation further during his conquests. The Spanish Empire held a major advantage over Mesoamerican warriors through the use of weapons made of stronger metal, predominantly iron, which was able to shatter the blades of axes used by the Aztec civilization and others. The European development of firearms using gunpowder cemented their military advantage over the peoples they sought to subjugate in the Americas and elsewhere. The end of empire Gandhi with Lord Pethwick-Lawrence, British Secretary of State for India, after a meeting on 18 April 1946 The populations of some colonial territories, such as Canada, enjoyed relative peace and prosperity as part of a European power, at least among the majority; however, minority populations such as First Nations peoples and French-Canadians experienced marginalization and resented colonial practises. Francophone residents of Quebec, for example, were vocal in opposing conscription into the armed services to fight on behalf of Britain during World War I, resulting in the Conscription crisis of 1917. Other European colonies had much more pronounced conflict between European settlers and the local population. Rebellions broke out in the later decades of the imperial era, such as India's Sepoy Rebellion. The territorial boundaries imposed by European colonizers, notably in central Africa and South Asia, defied the existing boundaries of native populations that had previously interacted little with one another. European colonizers disregarded native political and cultural animosities, imposing peace upon people under their military control. Native populations were often relocated at the will of the colonial administrators. Once independence from European control was achieved, civil war erupted in some former colonies, as native populations fought to capture territory for their own ethnic, cultural or political group. The Partition of India, a 1947 civil war that came in the aftermath of India's independence from Britain, became a conflict with 500,000 killed. Fighting erupted between Hindu, Sikh and Muslim communities as they fought for territorial dominance. Muslims fought for an independent country to be partitioned where they would not be a religious minority, resulting in the creation of Pakistan.[39] Post-independence population movement The annual Notting Hill Carnival in London is a celebration led by the Trinidadian and Tobagonian British community. In a reversal of the migration patterns experienced during the modern colonial era, post-independence era migration followed a route back towards the imperial country. In some cases, this was a movement of settlers of European origin returning to the land of their birth, or to an ancestral birthplace. 900,000 French colonists (known as the Pied-Noirs) resettled in France following Algeria's independence in 1962. A significant number of these migrants were also of Algerian descent. 800,000 people of Portuguese origin migrated to Portugal after the independence of former colonies in Africa between 1974 and 1979; 300,000 settlers of Dutch origin migrated to the Netherlands from the Dutch West Indies after Dutch military control of the colony ended.[40] After WWII 300,000 Dutchmen from the Dutch East Indies, of which the majority were people of Eurasian descent called Indo Europeans, repatriated to the Netherlands. A significant number later migrated to the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.[41][42] Global travel and migration in general developed at an increasingly brisk pace throughout the era of European colonial expansion. Citizens of the former colonies of European countries may have a privileged status in some respects with regard to immigration rights when settling in the former European imperial nation. For example, rights to dual citizenship may be generous,[43] or larger immigrant quotas may be extended to former colonies. In some cases, the former European imperial nations continue to foster close political and economic ties with former colonies. The Commonwealth of Nations is an organization that promotes cooperation between and among Britain and its former colonies, the Commonwealth members. A similar organization exists for former colonies of France, the Francophonie; the Community of Portuguese Language Countries plays a similar role for former Portuguese colonies, and the Dutch Language Union is the equivalent for former colonies of the Netherlands. Migration from former colonies has proven to be problematic for European countries, where the majority population may express hostility to ethnic minorities who have immigrated from former colonies. Cultural and religious conflict have often erupted in France in recent decades, between immigrants from the Maghreb countries of north Africa and the majority population of France. Nonetheless, immigration has changed the ethnic composition of France; by the 1980s, 25% of the total population of "inner Paris" and 14% of the metropolitan region were of foreign origin, mainly Algerian.[44] Impact on health See also: Globalization and disease, Columbian Exchange and Impact and evaluation of colonialism and colonization Aztecs dying of smallpox, ("The Florentine Codex" 1540–85) Encounters between explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced new diseases, which sometimes caused local epidemics of extraordinary virulence.[45] For example, smallpox, measles, malaria, yellow fever, and others were unknown in pre-Columbian America.[46] Disease killed the entire native (Guanches) population of the Canary Islands in the 16th century. Half the native population of Hispaniola in 1518 was killed by smallpox. Smallpox also ravaged Mexico in the 1520s, killing 150,000 in Tenochtitlan alone, including the emperor, and Peru in the 1530s, aiding the European conquerors. Measles killed a further two million Mexican natives in the 17th century. In 1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans.[47] Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians.[48] Some believe that the death of up to 95% of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases.[49] Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no time to build such immunity.[50] Smallpox decimated the native population of Australia, killing around 50% of indigenous Australians in the early years of British colonisation.[51] It also killed many New Zealand Māori.[52] As late as 1848–49, as many as 40,000 out of 150,000 Hawaiians are estimated to have died of measles, whooping cough and influenza. Introduced diseases, notably smallpox, nearly wiped out the native population of Easter Island.[53] In 1875, measles killed over 40,000 Fijians, approximately one-third of the population.[54] The Ainu population decreased drastically in the 19th century, due in large part to infectious diseases brought by Japanese settlers pouring into Hokkaido.[55] Conversely, researchers concluded that syphilis was carried from the New World to Europe after Columbus's voyages. The findings suggested Europeans could have carried the nonvenereal tropical bacteria home, where the organisms may have mutated into a more deadly form in the different conditions of Europe.[56] The disease was more frequently fatal than it is today; syphilis was a major killer in Europe during the Renaissance.[57] The first cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. Ten thousand British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic.[58] Between 1736 and 1834 only some 10% of East India Company's officers survived to take the final voyage home.[59] Waldemar Haffkine, who mainly worked in India, who developed and used vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague in the 1890s, is considered the first microbiologist. Countering disease As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organised a mission (the Balmis expedition) to transport the smallpox vaccine to the Spanish colonies, and establish mass vaccination programs there.[60] By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans.[61] Under the direction of Mountstuart Elphinstone a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination in India.[62] From the beginning of the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers.[63] The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk.[64] In the 20th century, the world saw the biggest increase in its population in human history due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to medical advances.[65] The world population has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to over seven billion today. Colonial migrations Further information: Settler colonialism and Greater Europe Nations and regions outside of Europe with significant populations of European ancestry[66] Africa (see Whites in Africa) South Africa South Africa (White South African): 9.6% of the population[67] Namibia Namibia (White Namibians): 6% of the population, of which most are Afrikaans-speaking, in addition to a German-speaking minority.[68] Boer family in South Africa, 1886 France Réunion estimated to be approx. 25% of the population[69] Zimbabwe Zimbabwe (Whites in Zimbabwe) Algeria Algeria (Pied-noir)[70] Botswana Botswana[71] Kenya Kenya (Whites in Kenya) Mauritius Mauritius (Franco-Mauritian) Ivory Coast Côte d'Ivoire (French people)[72] Senegal Senegal[73] Spain Canary Islands (Spaniards), known as Canarians. Seychelles Seychelles (Franco-Seychellois) Somalia Somalia (Italian Somalis) Saint Helena Saint Helena (UK) including Saint Helena Tristan da Cunha (UK): predominantly European. Swaziland Swaziland: 3% of the population[74] Russian settlers in Central Asia, present-day Kazakhstan, 1911 Asia Russia Siberia (Russians, Germans and Ukrainians)[75][76] Kazakhstan Kazakhstan (Russians in Kazakhstan, Germans of Kazakhstan): 30% of the population[77][78] Uzbekistan Uzbekistan (Russians and other Slavs): 5.5% of the population[78] Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyzstan (Russians and other Slavs): 13.5% of the population[78][79][80] Turkmenistan Turkmenistan (Russians and other Slavs): 4% of the population[78][81] Tajikistan Tajikistan (Russians and other Slavs)[78][82] Hong Kong Hong Kong[83] China People's Republic of China (Russians in China) IndiaBangladeshPakistan Indian subcontinent (Anglo-Indians) Latin America (see White Latin American) Italian immigrants arriving in São Paulo, Brazil c. 1890. Argentina Argentina (European Immigration to Argentina): 97% of the population[84] Bolivia Bolivia: 15% of the population[85] Brazil Brazil (White Brazilian): 47.3% of the population[86] Chile Chile (White Chilean): 60%-70% of the population.[87][88][89] Colombia Colombia (White Colombian): 20% of the population[90] Costa Rica Costa Rica[91] Cuba Cuba (White Cuban): 65% of the population[92] Dominican Republic Dominican Republic: 16% of the population[93] Ecuador Ecuador: 7% of the population[94] El Salvador El Salvador: 12% of the population[95] Mexico Mexico (White Mexican): 9% or ~17% of the population.[96][97] and 70-80% more as Mestizos.[98][99] Nicaragua Nicaragua: 17% of the population[100] Panama Panama 10% of the population[101] Puerto Rico Puerto Rico approx. 80% of the population[102] Peru Peru (European Peruvian): 15% of the population[103] Paraguay Paraguay approx. 20% of the population[104] Venezuela Venezuela (White Venezuelan): 42.2% of the population[105] Uruguay Uruguay: 88% of the population[106] Mennonites of German descent in Belize. Rest of the Americas The Bahamas Bahamas: 12% of the population[107] Barbados Barbados (White Barbadian): 4% of the population[108] Bermuda Bermuda: 34.1% of the population[109] Canada Canada: 80% of the population[110] Falkland Islands Falkland Islands, mostly of British descent. France French Guiana: 12% of the population[111] Greenland Greenland: 12% of the population[112] France Martinique: 5% of the population[113] France Saint Barthélemy[114] Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad and Tobago:[115] 0.6% of the population Portuguese immigrant family in Hawaii during the 19th century. United States United States of America (European American): 72.4% of the population, including Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Whites. Oceania (see Europeans in Oceania) Australia Australia: 89.3% of the population New Zealand New Zealand (New Zealand European): 78% of the population New Caledonia New Caledonia (Caldoche): 34.5% of the population French Polynesia French Polynesia: 10% of the population[116] Hawaii Hawaii: 24.7% of the population[117] Christmas Island Christmas Island: approx. 20% of the population. Guam Guam: 6.9% of the population[118] Norfolk Island Norfolk Island: 50% of the population |
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