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After World War II, moves towards European integration were seen by many as an escape from the extreme forms of nationalism that had devastated the continent.[26] The 1948 Hague Congress was a pivotal moment in European federal history, as it led to the creation of the European Movement International and also of the College of Europe, a place where Europe's future leaders would live and study together.[27] 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, which was declared to be "a first step in the federation of Europe", starting with the aim of eliminating the possibility of further wars between its member states by means of pooling the national heavy industries.[28] The founding members of the Community were Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany. The originators and supporters of the Community include Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak.[29] The continental territories of the member states of the European Union (European Communities pre-1993), coloured in order of accession. In 1957, the six countries signed the Treaty of Rome, which extended the earlier co-operation within the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and created the European Economic Community (EEC), establishing a customs union. They also signed another treaty on the same day creating the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958.[29] The EEC and Euratom were created separately from ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The executives of the new communities were called Commissions, as opposed to the "High Authority". The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein (Hallstein Commission) and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand (Armand Commission) and then Étienne Hirsch. Euratom would integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union between members.[30][31] Throughout the 1960s, tensions began to show with France seeking to limit supranational power. However, in 1965, an agreement was reached and hence in 1967, the Merger Treaty was signed in Brussels. It came into force on 1 July 1967 and created a single set of institutions for the three communities, which were collectively referred to as the European Communities (EC), although commonly just as the European Community.[32][33] Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission (Rey Commission).[34] In 1989, the Iron Curtain fell, enabling the union to expand further. (Berlin Wall) In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark (including Greenland, which later left the Community in 1985, following a dispute over fishing rights), Ireland, and the United Kingdom.[35] Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum. In 1979, the first direct, democratic elections to the European Parliament were held.[36] Greece joined in 1981; Portugal and Spain in 1986.[37] In 1985, the Schengen Agreement led the way toward the creation of open borders without passport controls between most member states and some non-member states.[38] In 1986, the European flag began to be used by the Community[39] and the Single European Act was signed. The euro was introduced in 2002, replacing 12 national currencies. Six countries have since joined; the latest entrant, Latvia, in 2014. In 1990, after the fall of the Eastern Bloc, the former East Germany became part of the Community as part of a reunited Germany.[40] With further enlargement planned for former communist states, Cyprus, and Malta, the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the EU were agreed upon in June 1993. The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty—whose main architects were Helmut Kohl and François Mitterrand—came into force on 1 November 1993.[16] In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU. In 2002, euro banknotes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states. Since then, the eurozone has increased to encompass 18 countries. In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined the Union.[41] Europe Day in Warsaw, Poland, a celebration of the European integration and peace between the European nations, awarded with the 2012 Nobel Peace Prize. On 1 January 2007, Romania and Bulgaria became EU members. In the same year, Slovenia adopted the euro,[41] followed in 2008 by Cyprus and Malta, by Slovakia in 2009, by Estonia in 2011 and by Latvia in 2014. In June 2009, the European Parliament elections were held, leading to the second Barroso Commission, and by July, Iceland formally applied for EU membership, but has since suspended negotiations. On 1 December 2009, the Lisbon Treaty entered into force and reformed many aspects of the EU. In particular, it changed the legal structure of the European Union, merging the EU three pillars system into a single legal entity provisioned with a legal personality, created a permanent President of the European Council, the first of which was Herman Van Rompuy, and strengthened the High Representative, Catherine Ashton.[42] The European Union received the 2012 Nobel Peace Prize for having "contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy, and human rights in Europe."[43][44] On 1 July 2013, Croatia became the 28th EU member.[45][46][47] The 8th European Parliament election in May 2014 saw euroskeptic parties gain a larger voteshare than previous elections. Structural evolution Main article: Treaties of the European Union Signed In force Document 1948 1948 Brussels Treaty 1951 1952 Paris Treaty 1954 1955 Modified Brussels Treaty 1957 1958 Rome treaties 1965 1967 Merger Treaty 1975 N/A European Council conclusion 1985 1985 Schengen Treaty 1986 1987 Single European Act 1992 1993 Maastricht Treaty 1997 1999 Amsterdam Treaty 2001 2003 Nice Treaty 2007 2009 Lisbon Treaty Three pillars of the European Union: European Communities: European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) Treaty expired in 2002 European Union (EU) European Economic Community (EEC) Schengen Rules European Community (EC) TREVI Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJCC) European Political Cooperation (EPC) Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) Unconsolidated bodies Western European Union (WEU) Treaty terminated in 2011 v t e Geography Main article: Geography of the European Union Coast of Cyprus The EU's climate is influenced by its 65,993 km (41,006 mi) coastline (Cyprus). Mont Blanc Mont Blanc in the Alps is the highest peak in the EU. The EU's member states cover an area of 4,423,147 square kilometres (1,707,787 sq mi).[c] The EU's highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps, 4,810.45 metres (15,782 ft) above sea level.[48] The lowest point(s) in the EU is Lammefjorden (Denmark) and Zuidplaspolder (Netherlands), at 7 m (23 ft) below sea level.[49] The landscape, climate, and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline, which is 65,993 kilometres (41,006 mi) long. Including the overseas territories of France which are located outside of the continent of Europe, but which are members of the union, the EU experiences most types of climate from Arctic (North-East Europe) to tropical (French Guyana), rendering meteorological averages for the EU as a whole meaningless. The majority of the population lives in areas with a temperate maritime climate (North-Western Europe and Central Europe), a Mediterranean climate (Southern Europe), or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate (Northern Balkans and Central Europe).[50] The EU's population is highly urbanised, with some 75% of inhabitants (and growing, projected to be 90% in seven member states by 2020) living in urban areas. Cities are largely spread out across the EU, although with a large grouping in and around the Benelux. An increasing percentage of this is due to low density urban sprawl which is extending into natural areas. In some cases, this urban growth has been due to the influx of EU funds into a region.[51] Member states Main article: Member state of the European Union The following 28 sovereign states (of which the map only shows territories situated in and around Europe) constitute the union:[52] Ireland United Kingdom France Netherlands Germany Denmark Poland Lithuania Latvia Estonia Finland Sweden Czech Repunlic Austria Hungary Romania Bulgaria Greece Slovakia Slovenia Croatia Italy Belgium Luxembourg Portugal Spain Malta Cyprus Name Capital Accession Population[53] Area (km2) Austria Vienna 1 Jan 1995 8,451,900 83,855 Belgium Brussels Founder 11,161,600 30,528 Bulgaria Sofia 1 Jan 2007 7,284,600 110,994 Croatia Zagreb 1 Jul 2013 4,262,100 56,594 Cyprus Nicosia 1 May 2004 865,900 9,251 Czech Republic Prague 1 May 2004 10,516,100 78,866 Denmark Copenhagen 1 Jan 1973 5,602,600 43,075 Estonia Tallinn 1 May 2004 1,324,800 45,227 Finland Helsinki 1 Jan 1995 5,426,700 338,424 France Paris Founder 65,633,200 674,843 Germany Berlin Founder[d] 80,523,700 357,021 Greece Athens 1 Jan 1981 11,062,500 131,990 Hungary Budapest 1 May 2004 9,908,800 93,030 Ireland Dublin 1 Jan 1973 4,591,100 70,273 Italy Rome Founder 59,685,200 301,338 Latvia Riga 1 May 2004 2,023,800 64,589 Lithuania Vilnius 1 May 2004 2,971,900 65,200 Luxembourg Luxembourg Founder 537,000 2,586 Malta Valletta 1 May 2004 421,400 316 Netherlands Amsterdam Founder 16,779,600 41,543 Poland Warsaw 1 May 2004 38,533,300 312,685 Portugal Lisbon 1 Jan 1986 10,487,300 92,390 Romania Bucharest 1 Jan 2007 20,057,500 238,391 Slovakia Bratislava 1 May 2004 5,410,800 49,035 Slovenia Ljubljana 1 May 2004 2,058,800 20,273 Spain Madrid 1 Jan 1986 46,704,300 504,030 Sweden Stockholm 1 Jan 1995 9,555,900 449,964 United Kingdom London 1 Jan 1973 63,730,100 243,610 Through successive enlargements, the Union has grown from the six founding states — Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands — to the current 28. Countries accede to the union by becoming party to the founding treaties, thereby subjecting themselves to the privileges and obligations of EU membership. This entails a partial delegation of sovereignty to the institutions in return for representation within those institutions, a practice often referred to as "pooling of sovereignty".[54][55] To become a member, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen. These require a stable democracy that respects human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU law. Evaluation of a country's fulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council.[56] No member state has ever left the Union, although Greenland (an autonomous province of Denmark) withdrew in 1985.[57] The Lisbon Treaty now contains a clause providing for a member to leave the EU.[58] There are six countries which are recognized as candidates for membership: Albania, Iceland, Macedonia,[e] Montenegro, Serbia, and Turkey.[59] However, on 13 June 2013, Iceland's Foreign Minister, Gunnar Bragi Sveinsson, informed the European Commission that the newly elected government intended to "put negotiations on hold".[60] Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo are officially recognised as potential candidates,[59] but have not submitted membership applications. Due to the lack of recognition by five of the 28 EU member states, the European Commission refers only to "Kosovo*", with an asterisked footnote containing the text agreed to by the Belgrade–Pristina negotiations: "This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo Declaration of Independence." Four countries forming the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) (that are not EU members) have partly committed to the EU's economy and regulations: Iceland (a candidate country for EU membership), Liechtenstein and Norway, which are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area, and Switzerland, which has similar ties through bilateral treaties.[61][62] The relationships of the European microstates, Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican include the use of the euro and other areas of co-operation.[63] Politics Main article: Politics of the European Union Political system of the European Union The EU operates within those competencies conferred on it by the treaties and according to the principle of subsidiarity (which dictates that action by the EU should only be taken where an objective cannot be sufficiently achieved by the member states alone). Laws made by the EU institutions are passed in a variety of forms. Generally speaking, they can be classified into two groups: those which come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures and those which specifically require national implementation measures.[64] Constitutional nature Further information: Treaties of the European Union The classification of the European Union in terms of international or constitutional law has been much debated, often in the light of the degree of integration that is perceived, desired, or expected. Historically, at least, the EU is an international organisation, and by some criteria, it could be classified as a confederation; but it also has many attributes of a federation, so some would classify it as a (de facto) federation of states.[65][66][67] For this reason, the organisation has, in the past, been termed sui generis (incomparable, one of a kind), though it is also argued that this designation is no longer true.[68][69] The organisation itself has traditionally used the terms "community", and later "union". The difficulties of classification involve the difference between national law (where the subjects of the law include natural persons and corporations) and international law (where the subjects include sovereign states and international organisations); they can also be seen in the light of differing European and American constitutional traditions.[68] Especially in terms of the European constitutional tradition, the term federation is equated with a sovereign federal state in international law; so the EU cannot be called a federal state or federation—at least, not without qualification. Though not, strictly, a federation, it is more than a free-trade association.[70] It is, however, described as being based on a federal model or federal in nature. Walter Hallstein, in the original German edition of Europe in the Making called it "an unfinished federal state".[71] The German Constitutional Court refers to the European Union as an association of sovereign states and affirms that making the EU a federation would require replacement of the German constitution.[72] Others claim that it will not develop into a federal state but has reached maturity as an international organisation.[73] Governance Main articles: Institutions of the European Union and Legislature of the European Union The European Union has seven institutions: the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, the European Council, the European Central Bank, the Court of Justice of the European Union and the European Court of Auditors. Competencies in scrutinising and amending legislation are divided between the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union while executive tasks are carried out by the European Commission and in a limited capacity by the European Council (not to be confused with the aforementioned Council of the European Union). The monetary policy of the eurozone is governed by the European Central Bank. The interpretation and the application of EU law and the treaties are ensured by the Court of Justice of the European Union. The EU budget is scrutinised by the European Court of Auditors. There are also a number of ancillary bodies which advise the EU or operate in a specific area. Institutions of the European Union [74] v t e Europarl logo.svgEuropean Parliament - Lower house of the legislature - European Council logo.svgEuropean Council - Provides impetus and direction - EU Consilium Logo.svgCouncil of the European Union - Upper house of the legislature - European Commission Logo.gifEuropean Commission - Executive - European Parliament Members of the European Council 2011 EU Council room European Commission building acts together with the Council as a legislature shares with the Council the budgetary power and decides in the last instance on the general budget of the EU exerts the democratic control over EU institutions including the European Commission and appoints the Commission members based and plenary sessions in Strasbourg, General Secretariat in Luxembourg, primarily meets in Brussels summit of the Heads of Government and of the President of the European Commission, in presence of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and chaired by the President of the European Council gives the necessary impetus for the development and sets out general objectives and priorities will not legislate based in Brussels acts together with the Parliament as a legislature exerts together with the Parliament the budgetary power ensures coordination of the broad economic and social policy and sets out guidelines for the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) conclude international agreements based in Brussels is the "government" submits proposals for new legislation to the Parliament and to the Council implements EU policy and administers the budget ensures compliance with EU law ("guardian of the treaties") negotiates international treaties based in Brussels No image wide.svg Court of Justice of the European Union - Judiciary - CURIA RATIONUM logo.svgEuropean Court of Auditors - Financial auditor - Logo European Central Bank.svgEuropean Central Bank - Monetary executive (central bank) - No image wide.svg ECJ room ECA building European Central Bank ensure uniformity of interpretation of European law has the power to decide legal disputes between EU member states, EU institutions, businesses and individuals based in Luxembourg examines the proper use of revenue and expenditure of the EU institutions (see also Budget of the European Union) based in Luxembourg forms together with the national central banks the European System of Central Banks and thereby determining the monetary policy of the EU ensures price stability in the eurozone by controlling the money supply based in Frankfurt European Council The President of the European Council, Herman Van Rompuy European Union Flag of the European Union This article is part of a series on the politics and government of the European Union Parliament[show] European Council[show] Council[show] Commission[show] Court of Justice[show] Central Bank[show] Court of Auditors[show] Agencies Other bodies[show] Policies and issues[show] Foreign relations[show] Elections[show] Law[show] v t e The European Council gives direction to the EU, and convenes at least four times a year. It comprises the President of the European Council, the President of the European Commission and one representative per member state; either its head of state or head of government. The European Council has been described by some as the Union's "supreme political authority".[75] It is actively involved in the negotiation of the treaty changes and defines the EU's policy agenda and strategies. The European Council uses its leadership role to sort out disputes between member states and the institutions, and to resolve political crises and disagreements over controversial issues and policies. It acts externally as a "collective head of state" and ratifies important documents (for example, international agreements and treaties).[76] On 19 November 2009, Herman Van Rompuy was chosen as the first permanent President of the European Council. On 1 December 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon entered into force and he assumed office. Ensuring the external representation of the EU,[77] driving consensus and settling divergences among members are tasks for the President both during the convocations of the European Council and in the time periods between them. The European Council should not be mistaken for the Council of Europe, an international organisation independent from the EU. European Commission The Commission President, Jean-Claude Juncker The European Commission acts as the EU's executive arm and is responsible for initiating legislation and the day-to-day running of the EU. The Commission is also seen as the motor of European integration. It operates as a cabinet government, with 28 Commissioners for different areas of policy, one from each member state, though Commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. One of the 28 is the Commission President (currently Jean-Claude Juncker) appointed by the European Council. After the President, the most prominent Commissioner is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy who is ex-officio Vice-President of the Commission and is chosen by the European Council too.[78] The other 26 Commissioners are subsequently appointed by the Council of the European Union (also known as the Council of Ministers) in agreement with the nominated President. The 28 Commissioners as a single body are subject to a vote of approval by the European Parliament. European Parliament The European Parliament building in Brussels. The European Parliament forms one half of the EU's legislature (the other half is the Council of the European Union, see below). The 736 (soon to be 751) Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are directly elected by EU citizens every five years on the basis of proportional representation. Although MEPs are elected on a national basis, they sit according to political groups rather than their nationality. Each country has a set number of seats and is divided into sub-national constituencies where this does not affect the proportional nature of the voting system.[79] The ordinary legislative procedure of the European Union. The Parliament and the Council of the European Union pass legislation jointly in nearly all areas under the ordinary legislative procedure. This also applies to the EU budget. Finally, the Commission is accountable to Parliament, requiring its approval to take office, having to report back to it and subject to motions of censure from it. The President of the European Parliament carries out the role of speaker in parliament and represents it externally. The EP President and Vice-Presidents are elected by MEPs every two and a half years.[80] Council of the European Union The Council of the European Union (also called the "Council"[81] and sometimes referred to as the "Council of Ministers")[82] forms the other half of the EU's legislature. It consists of a government minister from each member state and meets in different compositions depending on the policy area being addressed. Notwithstanding its different configurations, it is considered to be one single body.[83] In addition to its legislative functions, the Council also exercises executive functions in relations to the Common Foreign and Security Policy. Budget Main article: Budget of the European Union Circle frame.svg The 2011 EU budget (€141.9 bn. in total; commitment appropriations):[84] Cohesion and competitiveness for growth and employment (45%) Citizenship, freedom, security and justice (1%) The EU as a global partner (6%) Rural development (11%) Direct aids and market related expenditures (31%) Administration (6%) The EU had an agreed budget of €120.7 billion for the year 2007 and €864.3 billion for the period 2007–2013,[85] representing 1.10% and 1.05% of the EU-27's GNI forecast for the respective periods. By comparison, the United Kingdom's expenditure for 2004 was estimated to be €759 billion, and France was estimated to have spent €801 billion. In 1960, the budget of the then European Economic Community was 0.03% of GDP.[86] In the 2010 budget of €141.5 billion, the largest single expenditure item is "cohesion & competitiveness" with around 45% of the total budget.[87] Next comes "agriculture" with approximately 31% of the total.[87] "Rural development, environment and fisheries" takes up around 11%.[87] "Administration" accounts for around 6%.[87] The "EU as a global partner" and "citizenship, freedom, security and justice" bring up the rear with approximately 6% and 1% respectively.[87] The Court of Auditors aims to ensure that the budget of the European Union has been properly accounted for. The court provides an audit report for each financial year to the Council and the European Parliament. The Parliament uses this to decide whether to approve the Commission's handling of the budget. The Court also gives opinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti-fraud actions.[88] The Court of Auditors is legally obliged to provide the Parliament and the Council with "a statement of assurance as to the reliability of the accounts and the legality and regularity of the underlying transactions".[89] The Court has refused to do so every year since 1993, qualifying their report of the Union's accounts every year since then.[90] In their report on 2009 the auditors found that five areas of Union expenditure, agriculture and the cohesion fund, were materially affected by error.[91] The European Commission estimated[when?] that the financial impact of irregularities was €1,863 million.[92] Competences EU member states retain all powers not explicitly handed to the European Union. In some areas the EU enjoys exclusive competence. These are areas in which member states have renounced any capacity to enact legislation. In other areas the EU and its member states share the competence to legislate. While both can legislate, member states can only legislate to the extent to which the EU has not. In other policy areas the EU can only co-ordinate, support and supplement member state action but cannot enact legislation with the aim of harmonising national laws.[93] That a particular policy area falls into a certain category of competence is not necessarily indicative of what legislative procedure is used for enacting legislation within that policy area. Different legislative procedures are used within the same category of competence, and even with the same policy area. The distribution of competences in various policy areas between Member States and the Union is divided in the following three categories: As outlined in Title I of Part I of the consolidated Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union view talk edit Exclusive competence Shared competence Supporting competence "The Union has exclusive competence to make directives and conclude international agreements when provided for in a Union legislative act." the customs union the establishing of the competition rules necessary for the functioning of the internal market monetary policy for the Member States whose currency is the euro the conservation of marine biological resources under the common fisheries policy common commercial policy conclusion of certain international agreements "Member States cannot exercise competence in areas where the Union has done so." the internal market social policy, for the aspects defined in this Treaty economic, social and territorial cohesion agriculture and fisheries, excluding the conservation of marine biological resources environment consumer protection transport trans-European networks energy the area of freedom, security and justice common safety concerns in public health matters, for the aspects defined in this Treaty "Union exercise of competence shall not result in Member States being prevented from exercising theirs in" … research, technological development and (outer) space development cooperation, humanitarian aid "The Union coordinates Member States policies or implements supplemental to theirs common policies, not covered elsewhere" coordination of economic, employment and social policies common foreign, security and defence policies "The Union can carry out actions to support, coordinate or supplement Member States' actions in" … the protection and improvement of human health industry culture tourism education, youth, sport and vocational training civil protection (disaster prevention) administrative cooperation Legal system Further information: European Union law, Treaties of the European Union and Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union The last amendment to the constitutional basis of the EU came into force in 2009 and was the Lisbon Treaty. The EU is based on a series of treaties. These first established the European Community and the EU, and then made amendments to those founding treaties.[94] These are power-giving treaties which set broad policy goals and establish institutions with the necessary legal powers to implement those goals. These legal powers include the ability to enact legislation[f] which can directly affect all member states and their inhabitants.[g] The EU has legal personality, with the right to sign agreements and international treaties.[95] Under the principle of supremacy, national courts are required to enforce the treaties that their member states have ratified, and thus the laws enacted under them, even if doing so requires them to ignore conflicting national law, and (within limits) even constitutional provisions.[h] Courts of Justice The judicial branch of the EU—formally called the Court of Justice of the European Union—consists of three courts: the Court of Justice, the General Court, and the European Union Civil Service Tribunal. Together they interpret and apply the treaties and the law of the EU.[96] The Court of Justice primarily deals with cases taken by member states, the institutions, and cases referred to it by the courts of member states.[97] The General Court mainly deals with cases taken by individuals and companies directly before the EU's courts,[98] and the European Union Civil Service Tribunal adjudicates in disputes between the European Union and its civil service.[99] Decisions from the General Court can be appealed to the Court of Justice but only on a point of law.[100] Fundamental rights The awarding ceremony of the 1990 Sakharov Prize awarded to Aung San Suu Kyi (here by Martin Schulz) inside the Parliament's Strasbourg hemicycle, in 2013. Suu Kyi could not collect it before as she had been political prisoner for years. The treaties declare that the EU itself is "founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities ... in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail."[101] In 2009 the Lisbon Treaty gave legal effect to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The charter is a codified catalogue of fundamental rights against which the EU's legal acts can be judged. It consolidates many rights which were previously recognised by the Court of Justice and derived from the "constitutional traditions common to the member states."[102] The Court of Justice has long recognised fundamental rights and has, on occasion, invalidated EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to those fundamental rights.[103] The Charter of Fundamental Rights was drawn up in 2000. Although originally not legally binding the Charter was frequently cited by the EU's courts as encapsulating rights which the courts had long recognised as the fundamental principles of EU law. Although signing the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is a condition for EU membership,[i] previously, the EU itself could not accede to the Convention as it is neither a state[j] nor had the competence to accede.[k] The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14 to the ECHR have changed this: the former binds the EU to accede to the Convention while the latter formally permits it. Although, the EU is independent from Council of Europe, they share purpose and ideas especially on rule of law, human rights and democracy. Further European Convention on Human Rights and European Social Charter, the source of law of Charter of Fundamental Rights are created by Council of Europe. The EU also promoted human rights issues in the wider world. The EU opposes the death penalty and has proposed its worldwide abolition. Abolition of the death penalty is a condition for EU membership.[104] National Assembly of Hungary. Since the Lisbon Treaty, national parliaments have relevant legislative powers via subsidiarity principle. Acts The main legal acts of the EU come in three forms: regulations, directives, and decisions. Regulations become law in all member states the moment they come into force, without the requirement for any implementing measures,[l] and automatically override conflicting domestic provisions.[f] Directives require member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them discretion as to how to achieve the result. The details of how they are to be implemented are left to member states.[m] When the time limit for implementing directives passes, they may, under certain conditions, have direct effect in national law against member states. Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation. They are legal acts which only apply to specified individuals, companies or a particular member state. They are most often used in competition law, or on rulings on State Aid, but are also frequently used for procedural or administrative matters within the institutions. Regulations, directives, and decisions are of equal legal value and apply without any formal hierarchy.[105] Justice and home affairs Further information: Area of freedom, security and justice The borders inside the Schengen Area between Germany and Austria Since the creation of the EU in 1993, it has developed its competencies in the area of justice and home affairs, initially at an intergovernmental level and later by supranationalism. To this end, agencies have been established that co-ordinate associated actions: Europol for co-operation of police forces,[106] Eurojust for co-operation between prosecutors,[107] and Frontex for co-operation between border control authorities.[108] The EU also operates the Schengen Information System[17] which provides a common database for police and immigration authorities. This co-operation had to particularly be developed with the advent of open borders through the Schengen Agreement and the associated cross border crime. Furthermore, the Union has legislated in areas such as extradition,[109] family law,[110] asylum law,[111] and criminal justice.[112] Prohibitions against sexual and nationality discrimination have a long standing in the treaties.[n] In more recent years, these have been supplemented by powers to legislate against discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age, and sexual orientation.[o] By virtue of these powers, the EU has enacted legislation on sexual discrimination in the work-place, age discrimination, and racial discrimination.[p] Foreign relations Main articles: Foreign relations of the European Union, Common Foreign and Security Policy and European External Action Service The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, Federica Mogherini. A clickable Euler diagram showing the relationships between various multinational European organisations and agreements.v • d • e Foreign policy co-operation between member states dates from the establishment of the Community in 1957, when member states negotiated as a bloc in international trade negotiations under the Common Commercial policy.[113] Steps for a more wide ranging co-ordination in foreign relations began in 1970 with the establishment of European Political Cooperation which created an informal consultation process between member states with the aim of forming common foreign policies. It was not, however, until 1987 when European Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the Single European Act. EPC was renamed as the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) by the Maastricht Treaty.[114] The aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU's own interests and those of the international community as a whole, including the furtherance of international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law.[115] The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular issue. The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP sometimes lead to disagreements, such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq.[116] The EU participates in all G8 and G20 summits. (G20 summit in Seoul) The coordinator and representative of the CFSP within the EU is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (currently Federica Mogherini) who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy and defence matters, and has the task of articulating the positions expressed by the member states on these fields of policy into a common alignment. The High Representative heads up the European External Action Service (EEAS), a unique EU department[117] that has been officially implemented and operational since 1 December 2010 on the occasion of the first anniversary of the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon.[118] The EEAS will serve as a foreign ministry and diplomatic corps for the European Union.[119] Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement. The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU's accession criteria, and are considered an important factor contributing to the reform of European formerly Communist countries.[120] This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as "soft power", as opposed to military "hard power".[121] The European Union (EU) is a politico-economic union of 28 member states that are primarily located in Europe.[12][13] The EU operates through a system of supranational independent institutions and intergovernmental negotiated decisions by the member states.[14][15] Institutions of the EU include the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, the Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Central Bank, the Court of Auditors, and the European Parliament. The European Parliament is elected every five years by EU citizens. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Economic Community (EEC), formed by the Inner Six countries in 1951 and 1958, respectively. In the intervening years, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. The Maastricht Treaty established the European Union under its current name in 1993 and introduced the European Citizenship.[16] The latest major amendment to the constitutional basis of the EU, the Treaty of Lisbon, came into force in 2009. The EU has developed a single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished.[17] EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital,[18] enact legislation in justice and home affairs, and maintain common policies on trade,[19] agriculture,[20] fisheries, and regional development.[21] The monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002. It is currently composed of 18 member states that use the euro as their legal tender. Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the WTO, the G8, and the G-20. With a combined population of over 500 million inhabitants,[22] or 7.3% of the world population,[23] the EU in 2012 generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of 16.584 trillion US dollars, constituting approximately 23% of global nominal GDP and 20% when measured in terms of purchasing power parity. If it were a country, the EU would come first in nominal GDP and second in GDP (PPP) in the world.[24] In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.[25] |
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