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Insects African armyworm (Spodoptera exempta) Common armyworm (Pseudaletia unipuncta) Common earwig (Forficula auricularia) Corn delphacid (Peregrinus maidis) Corn leaf aphid (Rhopalosiphum maidis) Corn rootworms (Diabrotica spp) including Western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte), Northern corn rootworm (D. barberi) and Southern corn rootworm (D. undecimpunctata howardi) Corn silkfly (Euxesta stigmatis) European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) (ECB) Fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) Corn earworm/Cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa zea) Lesser cornstalk borer (Elasmopalpus lignosellus) Maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais) Northern armyworm, Oriental armyworm or Rice ear-cutting caterpillar (Mythimna separata) Southwestern corn borer (Diatraea grandiosella) Stalk borer (Papaipema nebris) The susceptibility of maize to the European corn borer and corn rootworms, and the resulting large crop losses which are estimated at a billion dollars worldwide for each pest,[67][68][69] led to the development of transgenics expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis toxin. "Bt maize" is widely grown in the United States and has been approved for release in Europe. Diseases Main article: List of maize diseases Rust Corn smut or common smut (Ustilago maydis): a fungal disease, known in Mexico as huitlacoche, which is prized by some as a gourmet delicacy in itself Northern corn leaf blight (Purdue Extension site) (Pioneer site) Southern corn leaf blight Maize dwarf mosaic virus Maize streak virus Stewart's Wilt (Pantoea stewartii) Goss's Wilt (Clavibacter michiganensis) Grey leaf spot Mal de Río Cuarto virus (MRCV) Stalk rot Ear rot Uses Human food Maize being roasted over an open flame in India. Maize and cornmeal (ground dried maize) constitute a staple food in many regions of the world. Maize is central to Mexican food. Virtually every dish in Mexican cuisine uses maize. On form of grain or cornmeal, maize is the main ingredient of tortillas, tamales, pozole, atole and all the dishes based on them, like tacos, quesadillas, chilaquiles, enchiladas, tostadas and many more. In Mexico even a fungus of maize, known as huitlacoche is considered a delicacy. Introduced into Africa by the Portuguese in the 16th century, maize has become Africa's most important staple food crop.[70] Maize meal is made into a thick porridge in many cultures: from the polenta of Italy, the angu of Brazil, the mămăligă of Romania, to cornmeal mush in the US (and hominy grits in the South) or the food called mealie pap in South Africa and sadza, nshima and ugali in other parts of Africa. Maize meal is also used as a replacement for wheat flour, to make cornbread and other baked products. Masa (cornmeal treated with limewater) is the main ingredient for tortillas, atole and many other dishes of Central American food. Cut sweet white corn Popcorn consists of kernels of certain varieties that explode when heated, forming fluffy pieces that are eaten as a snack. Roasted dried maize ears with semihardened kernels, coated with a seasoning mixture of fried chopped spring onions with salt added to the oil, is a popular snack food in Vietnam. Cancha, which are roasted maize chulpe kernels, are a very popular snack food in Peru, and also appears in traditional Peruvian ceviche. An unleavened bread called makki di roti is a popular bread eaten in the Punjab region of India and Pakistan. Chicha and chicha morada (purple chicha) are drinks typically made from particular types of maize. The first one is fermented and alcoholic, the second is a soft drink commonly drunk in Peru. Corn flakes are a common breakfast cereal in North America and the United Kingdom, and found in many other countries all over the world. Dried maize mote, also known as hominy, is used in Mexican cuisine Maize can also be prepared as hominy, in which the kernels are soaked with lye in a process called nixtamalization; or grits, which are coarsely ground hominy. These are commonly eaten in the Southeastern United States, foods handed down from Native Americans, who called the dish sagamite. The Brazilian dessert canjica is made by boiling maize kernels in sweetened milk. Maize can also be harvested and consumed in the unripe state, when the kernels are fully grown but still soft. Unripe maize must usually be cooked to become palatable; this may be done by simply boiling or roasting the whole ears and eating the kernels right off the cob. Sweet corn, a genetic variety that is high in sugars and low in starch, is usually consumed in the unripe state. Such corn on the cob is a common dish in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Cyprus, some parts of South America, and the Balkans, but virtually unheard of in some European countries. Corn on the cob was hawked on the streets of early 19th-century New York City by poor, barefoot "Hot Corn Girls", who were thus the precursors of hot dog carts, churro wagons, and fruit stands seen on the streets of big cities today.[71] The cooked, unripe kernels may also be shaved off the cob and served as a vegetable in side dishes, salads, garnishes, etc. Alternatively, the raw unripe kernels may also be grated off the cobs and processed into a variety of cooked dishes, such as maize purée, tamales, pamonhas, curau, cakes, ice creams, etc. A roadside vendor selling steamed maize in India Sweetcorn, yellow, raw (seeds only) Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 360 kJ (86 kcal) Carbohydrates 18.7 g Starch 5.7 g Sugars 6.26 g Dietary fiber 2 g Fat 1.35 g Protein 3.27 g Tryptophan 0.023 g Threonine 0.129 g Isoleucine 0.129 g Leucine 0.348 g Lysine 0.137 g Methionine 0.067 g Cystine 0.026 g Phenylalanine 0.150 g Tyrosine 0.123 g Valine 0.185 g Arginine 0.131 g Histidine 0.089 g Alanine 0.295 g Aspartic acid 0.244 g Glutamic acid 0.636 g Glycine 0.127 g Proline 0.292 g Serine 0.153 g Vitamins Vitamin A equiv. lutein zeaxanthin (1%) 9 μg 644 μg Thiamine (B1) (13%) 0.155 mg Riboflavin (B2) (5%) 0.055 mg Niacin (B3) (12%) 1.77 mg Pantothenic acid (B5) (14%) 0.717 mg Vitamin B6 (7%) 0.093 mg Folate (B9) (11%) 42 μg Vitamin C (8%) 6.8 mg Trace metals Iron (4%) 0.52 mg Magnesium (10%) 37 mg Manganese (8%) 0.163 mg Phosphorus (13%) 89 mg Potassium (6%) 270 mg Zinc (5%) 0.46 mg Other constituents Water 75.96 g Link to USDA Database entry One ear of medium size (6-3/4" to 7-1/2" long) maize has 90 grams of seeds Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams IU = International units Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database Maize is a major source of starch. Cornstarch (maize flour) is a major ingredient in home cooking and in many industrialized food products. Maize is also a major source of cooking oil (corn oil) and of maize gluten. Maize starch can be hydrolyzed and enzymatically treated to produce syrups, particularly high-fructose corn syrup, a sweetener; and also fermented and distilled to produce grain alcohol. Grain alcohol from maize is traditionally the source of Bourbon whiskey. Maize is sometimes used as the starch source for beer. Within the United States, the usage of maize for human consumption constitutes about 1/40th of the amount grown in the country. In the United States and Canada, maize is mostly grown to feed for livestock, as forage, silage (made by fermentation of chopped green cornstalks), or grain. Maize meal is also a significant ingredient of some commercial animal food products, such as dog food. Maize is also used as a fish bait, called "dough balls". It is particularly popular in Europe for coarse fishing. Chemicals Starch from maize can also be made into plastics, fabrics, adhesives, and many other chemical products. The corn steep liquor, a plentiful watery byproduct of maize wet milling process, is widely used in the biochemical industry and research as a culture medium to grow many kinds of microorganisms.[72] Chrysanthemin is found in purple corn and is used as a food coloring. Bio-fuel See also: Corn ethanol and Corn stover "Feed maize" is being used increasingly for heating;[citation needed] specialized corn stoves (similar to wood stoves) are available and use either feed maize or wood pellets to generate heat. Maize cobs are also used as a biomass fuel source. Maize is relatively cheap and home-heating furnaces have been developed which use maize kernels as a fuel. They feature a large hopper that feeds the uniformly sized maize kernels (or wood pellets or cherry pits) into the fire. Maize is increasingly used as a feedstock for the production of ethanol fuel.[citation needed] Ethanol is mixed with gasoline to decrease the amount of pollutants emitted when used to fuel motor vehicles. High fuel prices in mid-2007 led to higher demand for ethanol, which in turn lead to higher prices paid to farmers for maize. This led to the 2007 harvest being one of the most profitable maize crops in modern history for farmers. Because of the relationship between fuel and maize, prices paid for the crop now tend to track the price of oil.[citation needed] The price of food is affected to a certain degree by the use of maize for biofuel production. The cost of transportation, production, and marketing are a large portion (80%) of the price of food in the United States. Higher energy costs affect these costs, especially transportation. The increase in food prices the consumer has been seeing is mainly due to the higher energy cost. The effect of biofuel production on other food crop prices is indirect. Use of maize for biofuel production increases the demand, and therefore price of maize. This, in turn, results in farm acreage being diverted from other food crops to maize production. This reduces the supply of the other food crops and increases their prices.[73][74] Farm-based maize silage digester located near Neumünster in Germany, 2007. Green inflatable biogas holder is shown on top of the digester Maize is widely used in Germany as a feedstock for biogas plants. Here the maize is harvested, shredded then placed in silage clamps from which it is fed into the biogas plants. This process makes use of the whole plant rather than simply using the kernels as in the production of fuel ethanol. A biomass gasification power plant in Strem near Güssing, Burgenland, Austria, began in 2005. Research is being done to make diesel out of the biogas by the Fischer Tropsch method. Increasingly, ethanol is being used at low concentrations (10% or less) as an additive in gasoline (gasohol) for motor fuels to increase the octane rating, lower pollutants, and reduce petroleum use (what is nowadays also known as "biofuels" and has been generating an intense debate regarding the human beings' necessity of new sources of energy, on the one hand, and the need to maintain, in regions such as Latin America, the food habits and culture which has been the essence of civilizations such as the one originated in Mesoamerica; the entry, January 2008, of maize among the commercial agreements of NAFTA has increased this debate, considering the bad labor conditions of workers in the fields, and mainly the fact that NAFTA "opened the doors to the import of maize from the United States, where the farmers who grow it receive multimillion dollar subsidies and other government supports. (...) According to OXFAM UK, after NAFTA went into effect, the price of maize in Mexico fell 70% between 1994 and 2001. The number of farm jobs dropped as well: from 8.1 million in 1993 to 6.8 million in 2002. Many of those who found themselves without work were small-scale maize growers.").[75] However, introduction in the northern latitudes of the US of tropical maize for biofuels, and not for human or animal consumption, may potentially alleviate this. As a result of the US federal government announcing its production target of 35 billion US gallons (130,000,000 m3) of biofuels by 2017, ethanol production will grow to 7 billion US gallons (26,000,000 m3) by 2010, up from 4.5 billion in 2006, boosting ethanol's share of maize demand in the US from 22.6 percent to 36.1 percent.[76] Ornamental and other uses Main article: Corn construction Some forms of the plant are occasionally grown for ornamental use in the garden. For this purpose, variegated and colored leaf forms as well as those with colorful ears are used. Corncobs can be hollowed out and treated to make inexpensive smoking pipes, first manufactured in the United States in 1869. Children playing in a maize kernel box An unusual use for maize is to create a "corn maze" (or "maize maze") as a tourist attraction. The idea of a maize maze was introduced by the American Maze Company who created a maze in Pennsylvania in 1993.[77] Traditional mazes are most commonly grown using yew hedges, but these take several years to mature. The rapid growth of a field of maize allows a maze to be laid out using GPS at the start of a growing season and for the maize to grow tall enough to obstruct a visitor's line of sight by the start of the summer. In Canada and the US, these are popular in many farming communities. Maize kernels can be used in place of sand in a sandboxlike enclosure for children's play.[78] Stigmas from female maize flowers, popularly called corn silk, are sold as herbal supplements.[citation needed] Additionally, feed corn is sometimes used by hunters to bait animals such as deer or wild hogs. Fodder Maize produces a greater quantity of biomass than other cereal plants, which is used for fodder. Digestibility and palatability are higher when ensiled and fermented, rather than dried. Commodity Maize is bought and sold by investors and price speculators as a tradable commodity using corn futures contracts. These "futures" are traded on the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) under ticker symbol C. They are delivered every year in March, May, July, September, and December.[79] US usage breakdown The breakdown of usage of the 12.1-billion-bushel (307-million-tonne) 2008 US maize crop was as follows, according to the World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates Report by the USDA.[80] Use Amount million bushels million tonnes percentage livestock feed 5,250 133.4 43.4 ethanol production 3,650 92.7 30.2 exports 1,850 47.0 15.3 production of starch, corn oil, sweeteners (HFCS, etc.) 943 24.0 7.8 human consumption—grits, corn flour, corn meal, beverage alcohol 327 8.3 2.7 Comparison to other staple foods The following table shows the nutrient content of maize and major staple foods in a raw harvested form. Raw forms are not edible and cannot be digested. These must be sprouted, or prepared and cooked for human consumption. In sprouted or cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these staples are different from that of raw form of these staples reported in the table below. Nutrient content of major staple foods[81] STAPLE: Maize / Corn[A] Rice[B] Wheat[C] Potato[D] Cassava[E] Soybean (Green)[F] Sweet potato[G] Sorghum[H] Yam[Y] Plantain[Z] Component (per 100g portion) Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Water (g) 10 12 13 79 60 68 77 9 70 65 Energy (kJ) 1528 1528 1369 322 670 615 360 1419 494 511 Protein (g) 9.4 7.1 12.6 2.0 1.4 13.0 1.6 11.3 1.5 1.3 Fat (g) 4.74 0.66 1.54 0.09 0.28 6.8 0.05 3.3 0.17 0.37 Carbohydrates (g) 74 80 71 17 38 11 20 75 28 32 Fiber (g) 7.3 1.3 12.2 2.2 1.8 4.2 3 6.3 4.1 2.3 Sugar (g) 0.64 0.12 0.41 0.78 1.7 0 4.18 0 0.5 15 Calcium (mg) 7 28 29 12 16 197 30 28 17 3 Iron (mg) 2.71 0.8 3.19 0.78 0.27 3.55 0.61 4.4 0.54 0.6 Magnesium (mg) 127 25 126 23 21 65 25 0 21 37 Phosphorus (mg) 210 115 288 57 27 194 47 287 55 34 Potassium (mg) 287 115 363 421 271 620 337 350 816 499 Sodium (mg) 35 5 2 6 14 15 55 6 9 4 Zinc (mg) 2.21 1.09 2.65 0.29 0.34 0.99 0.3 0 0.24 0.14 Copper (mg) 0.31 0.22 0.43 0.11 0.10 0.13 0.15 - 0.18 0.08 Manganese (mg) 0.49 1.09 3.99 0.15 0.38 0.55 0.26 - 0.40 - Selenium (μg) 15.5 15.1 70.7 0.3 0.7 1.5 0.6 0 0.7 1.5 Vitamin C (mg) 0 0 0 19.7 20.6 29 2.4 0 17.1 18.4 Thiamin (mg) 0.39 0.07 0.30 0.08 0.09 0.44 0.08 0.24 0.11 0.05 Riboflavin (mg) 0.20 0.05 0.12 0.03 0.05 0.18 0.06 0.14 0.03 0.05 Niacin (mg) 3.63 1.6 5.46 1.05 0.85 1.65 0.56 2.93 0.55 0.69 Pantothenic acid (mg) 0.42 1.01 0.95 0.30 0.11 0.15 0.80 - 0.31 0.26 Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.62 0.16 0.3 0.30 0.09 0.07 0.21 - 0.29 0.30 Folate Total (μg) 19 8 38 16 27 165 11 0 23 22 Vitamin A (IU) 214 0 9 2 13 180 14187 0 138 1127 Vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol (mg) 0.49 0.11 1.01 0.01 0.19 0 0.26 0 0.39 0.14 Vitamin K1 (μg) 0.3 0.1 1.9 1.9 1.9 0 1.8 0 2.6 0.7 Beta-carotene (μg) 97 0 5 1 8 0 8509 0 83 457 Lutein+zeaxanthin (μg) 1355 0 220 8 0 0 0 0 0 30 Saturated fatty acids (g) 0.67 0.18 0.26 0.03 0.07 0.79 0.02 0.46 0.04 0.14 Monounsaturated fatty acids (g) 1.25 0.21 0.2 0.00 0.08 1.28 0.00 0.99 0.01 0.03 Polyunsaturated fatty acids (g) 2.16 0.18 0.63 0.04 0.05 3.20 0.01 1.37 0.08 0.07 A corn, yellow B rice, white, long-grain, regular, raw, unenriched C wheat, hard red winter D potato, flesh and skin, raw E cassava, raw F soybeans, green, raw G sweet potato, raw, unprepared H sorghum, raw Y yam, raw Z plantains, raw Hazards Pellagra Main article: Pellagra This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) When maize was first introduced into farming systems other than those used by traditional native-American peoples, it was generally welcomed with enthusiasm for its productivity. However, a widespread problem of malnutrition soon arose wherever maize was introduced as a staple food. This was a mystery, since these types of malnutrition were not normally seen among the indigenous Americans, for whom maize was the principal staple food.[82] It was eventually discovered that the indigenous Americans had learned to soak maize in alkali-water—made with ashes and lime (calcium oxide) since at least 1200-1500 BC by Mesoamericans and North Americans—which liberates the B-vitamin niacin,[83] the lack of which was the underlying cause of the condition known as pellagra. This alkali process is known by its Nahuatl (Aztec)-derived name: nixtamalization. Besides the lack of niacin, pellagra was also characterized by protein deficiency, a result of the inherent lack of two key amino acids in pre-modern maize, lysine and tryptophan. Nixtamalisation was also found to increase the availability of lysine and tryptophan to some extent, but more importantly, the indigenous Americans had also learned to balance their consumption of maize with beans and other protein sources such as amaranth and chia, as well as meat and fish, to acquire the complete range of amino acids for normal protein synthesis. Maize was introduced into the diet of nonindigenous Americans without the necessary cultural knowledge acquired over thousands of years in the Americas. In the late 19th century, pellagra reached epidemic proportions in parts of the southern US, as medical researchers debated two theories for its origin: the deficiency theory (which was eventually shown to be true) said that pellagra was due to a deficiency of some nutrient, and the germ theory said that pellagra was caused by a germ transmitted by stable flies. A third theory, promoted by the eugenicist Charles Davenport, held that people only contracted pellagra if they were susceptible to it due to certain “constitutional, inheritable” traits of the affected individual.[84] In 1914, the US government officially endorsed the germ theory of pellagra, but rescinded this endorsement several years later when the evidence grew against it. By the mid-1920s, the deficiency theory of pellagra was becoming scientific consensus, and the theory was validated in 1932 when niacin deficiency was determined to be the cause of the illness. Once alkali processing and dietary variety were understood and applied, pellagra disappeared in the developed world. The development of high lysine maize and the promotion of a more balanced diet have also contributed to its demise. Pellagra still exists today in food-poor areas and refugee camps where people survive on donated maize.[85] Allergy Maize contains lipid transfer protein, an indigestible protein that survives cooking. This protein has been linked to a rare and understudied allergy to maize in humans.[86] The allergic reaction can cause skin rash, swelling or itching of mucous membranes, diarrhea, vomiting, asthma and, in severe cases, anaphylaxis. It is unclear how common this allergy is in the general population. Art Gold maize. Moche culture 300 A.D., Larco Museum, Lima, Peru Water tower in Rochester, Minnesota being painted as an ear of maize Maize has been an essential crop in the Andes since the pre-Columbian Era. The Moche culture from Northern Peru made ceramics from earth, water, and fire. This pottery was a sacred substance, formed in significant shapes and used to represent important themes. Maize represented anthropomorphically as well as naturally.[87] In the United States, maize ears along with tobacco leaves are carved into the capitals of columns in the US Capitol building. Maize itself is sometimes used for temporary architectural detailing when the intent is to celebrate the fall season, local agricultural productivity and culture. Bundles of dried maize stalks are often displayed often along with pumpkins, gourds and straw in autumnal displays outside homes and businesses. A well-known example of architectural use is the Corn Palace in Mitchell, South Dakota, which uses cobs and ears of colored maize to implement a mural design that is recycled annually. A maize stalk with two ripe ears is depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 1 lipa coin, minted since 1993.[88] |
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