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Parkes was born in Canley (now a suburb of Coventry), in Warwickshire, England, and christened in the nearby village of Stoneleigh. His father, Thomas Parkes, was a small-scale tenant farmer. Of his mother, little is known, although when she died in 1842, Parkes would say of her that he felt as if a portion of this world's beauty was lost to him forever. He received little schooling, and at an early age was working on a rope-walk for four pence a day. His next work was in a brickyard, and later on he tells us he "was breaking stones on the Queen's highway with hardly enough clothing to protect me from the cold". He was then apprenticed to John Holding, a bone and ivory turner at Birmingham, and probably about the year 1832 joined the Birmingham political union. Between then and 1838 he was associated with the political movements that were then endeavouring to better the conditions endured by the working classes. He was steadily educating himself, too, by reading assiduously, including the works of the British poets. In 1835, he addressed some verses, afterwards included in his first volume of poems, to Clarinda Varney, the daughter of a local butler. On 11 July 1836 he married Clarinda Varney and went to live in a single room. Parkes commenced business on his own account in Birmingham and had a bitter struggle to make ends meet.[4] Immigration to Australia Following the death of their two children at an early age and a few unsuccessful weeks spent dwelling in London, Parkes and his wife immigrated to New South Wales on an assisted passage. They travelled aboard the Strathfieldsaye, which arrived at Sydney on 25 July 1839. Another child had been born two days before. During his first fortnight in Sydney, Parkes looked vainly for work. He and his wife had only a few shillings when they arrived, and they existed for a time by selling their belongings. Parkes' luck changed when one of the colony's wealthiest settlers, Sir John Jamison, gave him a labourer's job. He worked on Sir John's impressive Regentville estate, near Penrith, for a wage of £25 a year and a ration and a half of food. This ration consisted mainly of rice, flour and sugar, for the meat was sometimes unfit to eat. After spending six months at Regentville, he returned to Sydney and obtained work, at low wages, first in an ironmongery store and then with a firm of engineers and brass-founders. About a year after his arrival in Sydney, Parkes was hired by the New South Wales Customs Department as a Tide Waiter, and given the task of inspecting merchant vessels to guard against the smuggling of contraband. He had been recommended for this responsible post by Sir John Jamison's son-in-law, William John Gibbes, who was manager of Regentville and the offspring of the Collector of Customs for New South Wales, Colonel John George Nathaniel Gibbes. Parkes' financial position improved due to his stable new government job, even though he was still burdened with a backlog of undischarged debts. He nonetheless abandoned the security of his employment with the Customs Department at the beginning of 1846, submitting his resignation after a disagreement with Colonel Gibbes over a press leak that concerned the alleged behaviour of one of Parkes' co-workers. Irrespective of this rupture, Parkes would continue to remain on friendly terms with the Colonel and his descendants for the rest of his life. (Colonel Gibbes' grandson, Frederick Jamison Gibbes, entered the NSW Parliament in the 1880s; and although he often disagreed with Parkes on matters of economic policy, he did by and large support Parkes' push for the federation of the rival Australian colonies into an homogenous nation.) Parkes seems to have had few close personal friends during the early 1840s. Yet, when his volume of verse, Stolen Moments, was published in Sydney in 1842, the list of subscribers included many of the most distinguished people in the colony (including Colonel Gibbes, to whom the poetry book was dedicated). It was about this time that he met the poet Charles Harpur and the newspaperman William Duncan, then editor of the Weekly Register; he mentions in his Fifty Years of Australian History, that these two men became his "chief advisers in matters of intellectual resource".[4] After his departure from the Customs Service, Parkes embarked on a varied career in the private sector. He did business from premises in Kent Street as an ivory and bone turner but afterwards he moved to a shop in Hunter Street where he kept for sale to the public a stock of writing-desks, dressing-cases, fancy baskets, ornaments and toys. At one stage, he owned several newspapers, including The People's Advocate and New South Wales Vindicator and the Empire. His lack of business acumen quickly became apparent, however, and Parkes went bankrupt after running up debts totaling £48,500. He remained a steadfast supporter of Australian culture despite these financial setbacks, and he often published poetry in his newspapers. Campaign for self-government Parkes started to take a keen interest in the public proceedings of the colony and the burning question of the day, namely, the stoppage of convict transportation. Self-government was another important question of the day, the first step towards this objective having occurred in 1843, when an enlarged Legislative Council was sworn in, consisting partly of nominated and partly of elected members, and the powers of the governor were much restricted as a consequence. The third big question on people's lips was the colony's land laws. The struggle to make them fairer was to last for many years. Parkes, meanwhile, began writing for the Atlas and the People's Advocate; but it was not until 1848 that he first began to speak out in public on important issues of community concern. In that year, Robert Lowe, 1st Viscount Sherbrooke, was a candidate for the constituency of Sydney, standing as a champion of the anti-transportation cause. Parkes became a member of Lowe's election committee, was appointed one of his secretaries, and wrote the address to the voters which helped to secure Lowe's return. This marks the beginning of Parkes's political career. In 1849, Parkes was active at a meeting got up to petition both houses of parliament for a reduction of the suffrage qualifications. He made his first political speech, and advocated universal suffrage, which was not to become a reality for many years. Parkes thought his own speech a very weak performance. As a result of the petition, the qualification to vote was reduced to £10 household and £100 freehold. The transportation question again came to the fore when the convict ship Hashemy arrived in the colony on 8 June 1849. Despite pouring rain, a huge public rally was held at Sydney's Circular Quay, protesting against the continuance of transportation to New South Wales, and the agitation was kept up until success was achieved in 1852, when an end was put to the practice by the British Government. Parkes could derive satisfaction from the fact that he had spoken ardently against transportation at the various public meetings that had been organised by its opponents, and he had further aided the anti-transportation cause by writing articles in the press. During December 1850, Parkes founded the Empire newspaper. At first a broadsheet only published weekly, it soon became a daily. Parkes as editor was strong in his loyalty to the British Empire; but he felt that an honest and independent journal which was not be blind to the faults of the establishment could do useful work in the colony. It so happened that the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Charles Augustus FitzRoy, had neither the ability nor the industry of his immediate predecessors, and the Empire did not hesitate to point out his shortcomings, and those of the officials surrounding him. Parkes as editor and proprietor became a figure of great importance, and while he had control of the publication he worked unceasingly, writing articles, procuring news, and managing the business side of the enterprise (never his strong suit). In the pages of his paper, he fought for constitutional reform and spoke strenuously against the views of the leading politician William Charles Wentworth. In 1853, Wentworth had obtained the appointment of a sub-committee which brought forward a scheme for a new constitution for New South Wales that had the introduction of responsible government as its centrepiece. The ensuing bill was hotly debated in the colonial legislature in August of that year and carried by 33 votes to eight. Long years later, Parkes averred that, "in the heated opposition to the objectionable parts of Mr Wentworth's scheme, no sufficient attention was given to its great merits". Election to Legislative Council Wentworth went to England to support the bill in its passage through the British Parliament in 1854, and resigned his seat as a representative for the City of Sydney.[5] Charles Kemp and Parkes were nominated for the vacancy, and the latter was successful by 1427 votes to 779. Parkes in his election speeches had advocated the extension of the power of the people, increased facilities for education and a bold railway policy. In any event, Parkes began his political career quietly. He was with the minority faction in the Legislative Council, and he and his political allies could afford to bide their time until the new constitution came into force. His workload at the Empire office was extremely heavy, and in December 1855 he announced his intention of retiring from parliament. He was persuaded to alter his mind, and a month later he stood as a liberal candidate for Sydney City in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly.[4] Legislative Assembly The first parliament under responsible government commenced on 22 May 1856 but, for some months, little effective work was done. Ministry after ministry was formed, only to disappear within a few weeks due to factional instability. Parkes was once offered office but declined as he felt he would be deserting his friends. The Empire was not paying its way in spite of its reputation, and if it were to be saved Parkes would have to give his whole time to it. Around the end of 1856, he resigned his seat. Considering the short period he had been in parliament the response was remarkable. The press and public men of the period united in deploring his loss, and more than one effort was made to start a testimonial for him, but he resolutely declined to accept one. It is clear that his sincerity and power had made a great impression on the community. He put all his energies into an attempt to save his paper. There was no limit to the number of hours he worked in each day, but he was unsuccessful. The liabilities of the paper amounted to fully £50,000 and, though his friends rallied round him and tried to ease the situation by advancing the sum required to pay off a mortgage of £11,000 in 1858, the position became hopeless. Early in that year, Parkes had entered the Legislative Assembly again, this time as member for the North Riding of Cumberland. An interesting sidelight on his growing reputation is the fact that before this election (Sir) Charles Gavan Duffy wrote to a friend in Sydney, urging the desirability of Parkes' being elected. With remarkable prescience, he said: "I am confident that 10 years hence, and I do not doubt that 10 generations hence, the name which will best personify the national spirit of New South Wales in this era will be the name of Henry Parkes". Parkes sat in this parliament for about six months but then resigned at the end of August 1858 on account of his insolvency. His liabilities were estimated at £50,000 and his assets at £48,500. On the literary side the Empire was an excellent paper, but only a man of great business acumen could have made a financial success of it at this period. The issuing of a certificate of insolvency was bitterly opposed and the proceedings were long drawn out. It is evident that Parkes had resorted to the usual shifts of a man in financial difficulties, but it was shown that, in some cases at least, he had acted under the advice of his banker, and he was ultimately exonerated by the chief commissioner in insolvency of any fraudulent intent. Third Parliament Relieved of his heavy work on the Empire, which was continued in other hands, Parkes stood for parliament and was elected for East Sydney on 10 June 1859. He stood as an independent candidate but in the list of candidates elected he was described by the Sydney Morning Herald as a "radical". He was generally in favour of Sir John Robertson's land policy, of the extension of education, and of free trade. He was not a bigoted freetrader as he was as strongly in favour of developing manufactures as he was of encouraging agriculture. He was a strong supporter of free trade, immigration programmes and education reforms. He introduced laws that gave the Government the power to employ teachers and create public schools, abolished government funding to religious schools and improved prisons. Parkes also believed in immigration, and his well-known powers as an orator led to his being sent to England with W. B. Dalley as commissioners of emigration at a salary of £1000 a year each in May 1861. Parkes left his wife and five, soon to become six, children in poverty, on a rented farm at Werrington.[2] Their duties were confined to diffusing information, and Parkes spoke at about 60 meetings at towns in the west and north of England and in Scotland. He felt that he had done good work, but it was difficult to say how much effect his words had. During the 14 months he was in England he met many interesting people, and became in particular friendly with Carlyle and his wife. He returned to Australia in January 1863. In August he opposed J. B. Darvall at East Maitland and was defeated; but in the following year, was elected for Kiama. In January 1866 the premier, Charles Cowper, resigned in consequence of an amendment moved by Parkes having been carried. Strictly speaking the governor should have asked Parkes whether he could form a government, but Sir James Martin was sent for and Parkes was given the position of Colonial Secretary. This ministry remained in office for nearly three years, from January 1866 to October 1868. An important piece of legislation carried through was the Public Schools Act 1866, introduced by Parkes, of which an essential part was that no man or woman would be allowed to act as a teacher who had not been properly trained in teaching. Provision was also made for the training of teachers, and the act marked a great advance in educational methods. A council of education was formed, and for the first four years after the passing of the act Parkes filled the office of president. In spite of the fears of some of the religious bodies the act worked well, and many new schools were established all over the colony.[4] Parkes also initiated the introduction of nurses from England trained by Florence Nightingale.[2] In 1867 to 1868 Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh (Queen Victoria's second oldest son) visited the Australian colonies. On 12 March 1868 the Duke, while attending a picnic at Clontarf near Sydney, was shot in the back by one Henry James O'Farrell. The assassin was Irish, and at the time claimed he was a Fenian. The wound while painful was not fatal. However the Colonial Government overreacted, and despite the Duke's requests for leniency it executed O'Farrell. O'Farrell had, in the meantime, admitted he was not really a member of the Fenians, but by the time of the execution other acts of violence connected with the Fenians (most notably the murder of D'Arcy McGee in Canada) spurred anti-Fenian and anti-Irish Catholic feelings. Parkes, in what may have been the most egregious blunder of his career, pushed this anti-Fenianism full throttle. For a while his claims of a vast Fenian conspiracy in New South Wales was believed, but when nothing further occurred public opinion began to reverse and he was attacked. As a result his political position weakened dreadfully. He resigned from the Martin ministry in September 1868, and for the next three and a half years was out of office. In the first year of the Robertson government he moved a want-of-confidence motion which was defeated by four votes. Parkes continued to be one of the most conspicuous figures in the house, and at the 1869 election was returned at the head of the poll for East Sydney. A much larger proportion of assisted Irish immigrants than English or Scotch had been arriving in the colony for many years and Parkes felt there was an element of danger in this. He stated that he had no feeling against the Irish or their religion, but his protestations were without avail and the Irish section of the community became hostile to him. Whatever may have been the merits of the question it would appear that in this matter Parkes put convictions before policy. Resignation, re-election and first premiership See also: Parkes ministry (1872–1875) In 1870 Henry Parkes was again in financial difficulties and was obliged to resign his seat. He had been in business as a merchant in a comparatively large way, and when declared insolvent he had liabilities of £32,000 and assets of £13,300. He was at once re-elected for Kiama, but an extremely hostile article in the Sydney Morning Herald led to his resigning again. The suggestion had been made that his presence in the assembly while in the insolvency court might influence the officials. It was not until December 1871 that a seat could be found for him and he was then elected at a by-election for Mudgee. The Martin-Robertson ministry had involved itself in a petty squabble with the colony of Victoria over a question of border duties, and Parkes effectively threw ridicule on the proceedings. When parliament met the government was defeated and a dissolution was granted. In the general election which followed Parkes was generally recognized as the leader of the people's party, and the ministry was defeated at the polls. When parliament assembled Parkes was elected leader of the opposition, representing East Sydney.[5] The acting-governor had sent for William Forster before parliament met, but he was unable to form a ministry, and in May 1872 Parkes formed his first ministry which was to last for nearly three years. Parkes had always been a free-trader and no doubt his convictions were strengthened when in England by contact with Cobden and other leading free traders. During his first administration he so reduced the duties in New South Wales that practically it became a free trade colony. Generally there was a forward policy. Railway and telegraph lines were much extended, and at the same time there was some reduction in taxation. In 1873 the retirement of Sir Alfred Stephen, the Chief Justice, led to an incident which raised much feeling against Parkes. It seems clear that Parkes at first encouraged his Attorney-General, E. Butler, to believe that he would be appointed Chief Justice of New South Wales. Opposition developed in many quarters and Parkes gradually realised that Sir James Martin was generally considered to be the most suitable man available, and offered him the position. When the announcement of his appointment was made on 11 November 1873, Butler took the opportunity to make a statement, read publicly the correspondence between Parkes and himself, and resigned his seat in the cabinet. However much Parkes may have been to blame for his early encouragement of the aspirations of his colleague, there appears to be no truth in the suggestion then made that he had, by appointing Martin, found means of getting rid of a formidable political opponent. The ministry went on its way though unable to pass bills to make the Upper House elective and to amend the electoral law. The council was jealous of its position and succeeded in maintaining it for the time being. Two or three unsuccessful attempts were made to oust the government without success, but in February 1875, Governor Robinson's decision to release of the bushranger Frank Gardiner led to the defeat of the ministry. Subsequent discussions between Robinson, Parkes and the Colonial Office clarified the governor's responsibilities in pardoning prisoners.[2] Sir Henry Parkes, GCMG (27 May 1815[1] – 27 April 1896)[2] was regarded as the Father of the Australian Federation.[3] As the earliest advocate of a Federal Council of the colonies of Australia, a precursor to the Commonwealth of Australia, he was the most prominent of the Australian Founding Fathers. Parkes was described during his lifetime by The Times as "the most commanding figure in Australian politics". Alfred Deakin described him as "though not rich or versatile, his personality was massive, durable and imposing, resting upon elementary qualities of human nature elevated by a strong mind. He was cast in the mould of a great man and though he suffered from numerous pettinesses, spites and failings, he was in himself a large-brained self-educated Titan whose natural field was found in Parliament and whose resources of character and intellect enabled him in his later years to overshadow all his contemporaries".[2] Parkes was tall, with rugged facial features, a leonine mane of hair and a commanding personality. He was a persuasive orator, too, who eschewed flights of rhetoric and spoke as a plain man to plain men, with great effect, in spite of occasional difficulties in controlling his aspirates. He had no schooling worthy of the name but had read widely. It has been said of him that he lacked gracious manners and was too conscious of his intellectual superiority, but his kindly reception in the UK by the likes of Thomas Carlyle and Alfred, Lord Tennyson, suggests that he was not without charm. He was interested in early Australian literary men, having been a friend of both Harpur and Kendall. He was a bad manager of his own affairs; what he had he spent, and he died penniless. Yet he evidently knew a good financier when he saw one, for he had able treasurers serving in each of his cabinets, and their financial administration was sound. He was vain and temperamental, and frequently resigned his parliamentary seat only to seek election again soon afterwards. He was not a socialist but he had strong views about the rights of the people and for most of his parliamentary life was a great leader of them. In his later years, however, he seems to have been worn down by the strong conservative opposition he encountered, and he was responsible for a smaller body of social-reform legislation than might have been expected. Early to recognise the need for Australian Federation, when he saw that it had really become possible to achieve, he fought strongly for it, at a time when many leading politicians in New South Wales were fearful of its effect on their colony. The indomitable character which had raised him from farm labourer to premier, and his recognition of the altruistic broader view that was required in a great movement such as Federation, had an immense effect when the cause's fate was in doubt, and weighted the scale in its favour.[4] |
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