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In July 1915 the French Commander in Chief Joseph Joffre held the first inter-Allied conference at Chantilly and in December 1915 a second conference resolved to conduct simultaneous attacks by the French, Russian, British and Italian armies. For the British, France and Flanders were the main theatre of operations and in February 1916 Haig accepted Joffre's plan, for a combined attack astride the Somme river around 1 July. In April the British Cabinet accepted the necessity of an offensive in France.[1] The nature of a joint offensive on the Somme began to change almost immediately when the German army attacked at Verdun on 21 February. In March Foch proposed a Somme offensive on a 45 kilometres (28 mi) front between Lassigny and the Somme and a British attack on a 25 kilometres (16 mi) front, from the Somme to Thiepval with 42 French and 25 British divisions. French divisions intended for the joint offensive were diverted to Verdun and the offensive was eventually reduced to a main effort by the British, with a supporting attack by one French army.[2] The Somme was to be the first mass offensive mounted by the British Expeditionary Force and the first battle to involve a large number of New Army divisions, many composed of Pals battalions that had formed in response to Kitchener's call for volunteers in August 1914.[3] By the end of the Gallipoli Campaign twelve British divisions were in Egypt and from 4 February – 20 June 1916 nine were transferred to France. From Britain and Egypt the 34th and 35th divisions arrived in January, the 31st and 46th in February, the 29th, 39th, 1st Australian and 2nd Australian divisions in March, the New Zealand Division in April, the 41st, 61st and 63rd divisions in May, the 40th, 60th, 4th Australian and 5th Australian divisions in June and the 11th Division arrived on 3 July. The 55th and 56th divisions were reassembled and a Battalion of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment and the South African Brigade joined in April and a contingent of the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps in July.[4] Despite considerable debate among German staff officers, Falkenhayn insisted on rigid defence of the front line in 1916 and implied after the war that the psychology of German soldiers, shortage of manpower and lack of reserves made the policy inescapable, since the troops necessary to seal off breakthroughs did not exist. High losses incurred in holding ground by a policy of no retreat, were preferable to higher losses, voluntary withdrawals and the effect of a belief that soldiers had discretion to avoid battle. When a more flexible policy was substituted later, discretion was still reserved to army commanders.[5] Despite the certainty by mid-June, of an Anglo-French attack on the Somme against the Second Army, Falkenhayn sent only four divisions, keeping eight in the western strategic reserve. No divisions were moved from the Sixth Army, despite it holding a shorter line with 17 1⁄2 divisions and having three of the reserve divisions in the Sixth Army area. The maintenance of the strength of the Sixth Army, at the expense of the Second Army on the Somme, indicated that Falkehnayn intended the counter-offensive against the British to be made north of the Somme front, once the British offensive had been shattered.[6] Tactical developments In April 1916 Groupe d'armées du Nord (GAN) issued an 82-page pamphlet on the stages and processes of an attack on enemy positions prepared in depth, which as the experience of the offensives of 1915 had demonstrated, would inevitably be costly and time-consuming military operations. The pamphlet was a substantial revision of Note 5779 which had been derived from But et conditions d'une action offensive d'ensemble (16 April 1915), compiled from after-action reports of the fighting in 1914 and the foundation of French offensive planning during 1915. The pamphlet revised the emphasis in Note 5779 on decisive battles leading to breakthroughs; battle would be methodical until the power of resistance of the defender was broken by "moral, material and physical degradation", while the attacker still had the ability to attack and that a breakthrough would be unlikely.[7] Co-ordination of artillery and infantry was fundamental to the process, in which artillery would destroy defences and then infantry would occupy them, thus infantry objectives were to be determined by the range of artillery.[8] Artillery bombardments were to be co-ordinated with infantry attacks, with various types of artillery given particular objectives, for the destruction of field defences and the killing of the German infantry in them. Heavy artillery and mortars were to be used for the destruction of field fortifications, howitzers and light mortars for the destruction of trenches, machine-gun and observation posts; heavy guns and mortars to destroy fortified villages and concrete strong points.[9] Longer-range guns were to engage German artillery with counter-battery fire, to deprive German infantry of artillery support, when French infantry were at their most vulnerable during the attack. Wire-cutting was to be performed by field artillery firing "high explosive" (H.E.) shells and supported by specialist wire-cutting sections of infantry, which would go out the night before an attack. During the attack field artillery would fire a linear barrage, at trenches and the edges of woods and villages. Infantry attacks were to be based on reconnaissance, clear objectives, liaison with flanking units and the avoidance of disorganisation within attacking units. General attacks would need to be followed by the systematic capture of surviving defensive positions, to create suitable jumping-off positions for the next general attack.[10] In 1915 British tactical thinking had been based on the experience of its Western Front battles, particularly the Battle of Loos in September and the study of French and German examples, in translated French manuals and pamphlets. The importance of organised artillery fire power and the integration of types of weapons and equipment was recognised. Creeping barrages, smoke-screens and cloud gas discharges were to be used along with aircraft, trench mortars, Lewis guns and elaborate signals systems, which had been created to counter chronic communication failures, which occurred as soon as the infantry attacked. Troops were to attack in a succession of lines grouped into waves and followed by parties to consolidate captured ground or pass through the leading troops and continue the advance. The 9th Division had attacked at Loos with four battalions on a front of 1,600 yards (1,500 m), each battalion in three waves, one behind the other. A second battalion followed each of the leading battalions in the same formation, ready to leapfrog beyond and a second brigade followed the first as a reserve. Six lines of infantry, with the soldiers 2 yards (1.8 m) apart had confronted the German defence. Lines and waves had been made thinner and shallower after 1915 and on 14 July 1916 in the attack on Longueval, the division advanced with four battalions, with companies arranged in columns of platoons, creating four platoon waves 70 yards (64 m) apart, one brigade attacking with two companies of each battalion, two more behind and a second battalion following on, so that each section of the front was attacked by sixteen platoon waves. Six platoons had gone forward on a front of about 1,000 yards (910 m), roughly one soldier every 5.5 yards (5.0 m).[11] On the Somme front Falkenhayn's construction plan of January 1915 had been completed. Barbed wire obstacles had been enlarged from one belt 5–10 yards (4.6–9.1 m) wide to two, 30 yards (27 m) wide and about 15 yards (14 m) apart. Double and triple thickness wire was used and laid 3–5 feet (0.91–1.52 m) high. The front line had been increased from one trench to three, dug 150–200 yards (140–180 m) apart, the first trench occupied by sentry groups, the second (Wohngraben) for the front-trench garrison and the third trench for local reserves. The trenches were traversed and had sentry-posts in concrete recesses built into the parapet. Dugouts had been deepened from 6–9 feet (1.8–2.7 m) to 20–30 feet (6.1–9.1 m), 50 yards (46 m) apart and large enough for 25 men. An intermediate line of strongpoints (Stutzpunktlinie) about 1,000 yards (910 m) behind the front line was also built. Communication trenches ran back to the reserve line, renamed the second line, which was as well-built and wired as the first line. The second line was beyond the range of Allied field artillery, to force an attacker to stop and move field artillery forward before assaulting the line.[12] Prelude Anglo-French offensive preparations Aircraft For long-distance reconnaissance and bombing and attacks on the German air service, the 9th (Headquarters) Wing of the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) was moved to the Somme front, with 21, 27, 60 squadrons and part of 70 Squadron. The Fourth Army had the support of IV Brigade, with two squadrons of the 14th (Army) Wing, four squadrons of the 3rd Wing and 1 Kite Balloon Squadron, with one section for each corps. Corps squadrons, 3, 4, 9, and 15 had 30 aircraft for counter-battery work, 13 aircraft for contact patrol, 16 for trench reconnaissance, destructive bombardment and other duties and there were nine aircraft in reserve. VII Corps was given 8 Squadron with 18 aircraft and 5 Kite Balloon Section. The strength of the RFC in the Somme area was 185 aircraft against a German Second Army aircraft establishment, which also had to face the French air service on the south bank of the Somme. (The Anglo-French air effort considerably outnumbered the Germans opposite until mid-July.) Protection for corps aircraft was to be provided by standing patrols of pairs of aircraft and offensive sweeps by the two army squadrons.[Note 1] Bombing attacks were to be made on the railways behind the German front, with the main effort beginning on 1 July, to ensure that damage could not be repaired in the days after the beginning of the offensive. Troops, transport columns, dumps and headquarters behind the battlefront were to be attacked and the ammunition depots at Mons, Namur and Lille were to be specially attacked.[14]The French Sixth Army had 201 aeroplanes.[15] Artillery 60-pounder battery The British had substantially increased the amount of artillery on the Western Front since the Battle of Loos in late 1915 but the length of front to be bombarded, led to a five-day preparatory bombardment being planned, after debate about the merits of a short "hurricane bombardment", due to a lack of guns to fulfil the destruction of German field defences and be certain to cut barbed wire, given uncertain weather and the dependence of the artillery on air observation.[Note 2] The artillery had to cut barbed wire and neutralise German artillery with counter-battery fire. The British artillery fired more than 1.5 million shells, more than in the first year of the war; another 250,000 shells were fired on 1 July. The bombardment could be heard on Hampstead Heath, 300 miles (480 km) away. While this weight of bombardment was new for the British, it was common on the Western Front; the French Second Battle of Artois in May 1915 had been preceded by a six-day bombardment in which over 2.1 million shells were fired. On the Somme, while British shell production had increased since the shell scandal of 1915, quality was poor and many shells failed to explode.[18] Shrapnel was virtually useless against entrenched positions and required accurate fuze settings to cut wire but very little high explosive ammunition had been manufactured for field artillery.[19][Note 3] The French Sixth Army had 552 heavy guns and howitzers, with a much larger supply of H.E. ammunition for field artillery and far more experienced personnel.[20] Cavalry In March the two British cavalry corps were disbanded and the divisions distributed to the armies and the new Reserve Corps, under the command of Gough, which was reinforced and became the Reserve Army in June. The Reserve Army cavalry was to operate combined with infantry and artillery, ready to act as a "conveyor belt", to exploit a success by the Fourth Army, with the 25th Division in the lead followed by two cavalry divisions and then II Corps.[21] In mid-June II Corps was moved from the Reserve Army, which was subordinated to the Fourth Army. The French Sixth Army had four cavalry divisions available.[22] In late June favourable intelligence reports and the reduction of the French commitment for the Somme offensive led to a change of plan by the British. Should the German army collapse, the cavalry was expected to follow-up a breakthrough, capture Bapaume, take post on the right flank, to provide a flank guard in all-arms detachments facing east, as the main body of cavalry and the infantry advanced northwards. The 1st, 2nd (Indian) and 3rd cavalry divisions were to assemble by zero hour 5 miles (8.0 km) west of Albert around Buire, Bresle, Bonny and La Neuville, ready to move forward or remain and then return to billets behind Amiens, depending on events.[23] Infantry A British Expeditionary Force (BEF) manual published on 8 May 1916 (SS 109: Training of Divisions For Offensive Action) described successions of lines to add driving power to the attack, to reach the objective and have the capacity to consolidate the captured ground against counter-attack.[Note 4] In the Fourth Army Tactical Notes of May 1916, battalions were allowed to attack on a front of 2–4 platoons in 8–4 waves about 100 yards (91 m) apart. Supporting lines were to pass through leading ones, to avoid excessive demands on the energy and ability of individual soldiers. Weight of numbers was rejected and each platoon would carry half the burden of a brigade attack for a few minutes, before being relieved by a fresh wave. Platoons were divided into functions, fighting, mopping-up, support and carrying, where the fighting platoons were to press on, as the moppers-up secured the ground behind them. Support and carrying platoons could pick their way through artillery barrages, with the tools and weapons needed to defeat German counter-attacks.[25] Some troops in carrying platoons had about 66 pounds (30 kg) of equipment and tools, whereas troops in the advanced platoons carried a rifle, bayonet, 170 rounds of ammunition, iron rations, two grenades, pick, shovel or entrenching tool, four empty sandbags, two gas helmets, wire cutters, a smoke candle and a water-bottle.[26][Note 5] In the French army, the experience of 1915 showed that despite the power of French bombardments, infantry would enter a chaotic environment, full of German pockets of resistance and individuals who had been by-passed. By mid-1916 much of the French infantry in the Sixth Army had been trained as specialists, either rifle-and-bayonet men, bombers, rifle grenadiers or light machine-gun crews. Attacking waves were spread wider and companies trained to manoeuvre in small groups, to get behind surviving German defences, as Nettoyeurs de Tranchées ("trench cleaners") armed with hand-grenades and revolvers, searched captured ground for stray Germans and hidden machine-gunners, although such methods did not come into general use until later in the year.[28] Intelligence In March and April, eight German divisions were believed to be in reserve opposite the British, from the Somme to the North Sea coast, then in April reserve divisions behind the German Fourth Army were moved south behind the German Sixth Army. From 4–14 June the success of the Brusilov Offensive became apparent and agent reports showed increased railway movements from Belgium to Germany. The final BEF Military Intelligence estimate before 1 July, was that there were 32 German battalions opposite the Fourth Army and 65 battalions in reserve and close enough to reach the battlefield in the first week. Five of the seven German divisions had been engaged at Verdun and the removal of divisions from France to the Eastern Front, had become certain. Men of the 1916 conscription class were appearing among German prisoners of war, which suggested that the German army had been depleted, to the point where it would be possible to break down the German front line and force a battle of manoeuvre on the defenders. In late June the British part of the Somme plan was amended, to accommodate the rapid capture of Bapaume and the envelopment of German defences north to Arras, rather than the outflanking of the German defences to the south at Péronne. An increase in the number of trains moving from Germany to Belgium was also discovered but the quality of German troops opposite the British was thought to have been much reduced. The true number of German divisions in reserve in France, was ten with six opposite the British, double the number believed by the British to be available. Reports of work continuing on the German defences opposite the Fourth Army in March and April, led the planners to adopt a less optimistic view, particularly due to the news about very deep shell-proof shelters being dug under German front trenches, which proved far less vulnerable to bombardment. [29] The first day on the Somme, 1 July 1916, was the opening day of the Battle of Albert (1–13 July 1916). Nine corps of the French Sixth Army, as well as the British Fourth and Third armies, attacked the German Second Army of General Fritz von Below, from Foucaucourt on the south bank to Serre, north of the Ancre and at Gommecourt 2 miles (3.2 km) beyond. The objective of the attack was to capture the German first and second positions from Serre south to the Albert–Bapaume road and the first position from the road south to Foucaucourt. The German defence south of the road mostly collapsed and the French had "complete success" on both banks of the Somme, as did the British from Maricourt on the army boundary, where XIII Corps took Montauban and reached all its objectives and XV Corps captured Mametz and isolated Fricourt. The III Corps attack on both sides of the Albert–Bapaume road was a disaster, making only a short advance south of La Boisselle, with a huge number of casualties. Further north the X Corps attack captured the Leipzig Redoubt, failed opposite Thiepval and had a great but temporary success on the left, where the German front line was overrun and Schwaben and Stuff redoubts captured. German counter-attacks during the afternoon recaptured most of the lost ground north of the Albert–Bapaume road and fresh attacks against Thiepval were defeated, also with great loss to the British. On the north bank of the Ancre the attack of VIII Corps was another failure, with large numbers of British troops being shot down in no man's land. The VII Corps diversion at Gommecourt was also costly, with only a partial and temporary advance south of the village. The German defeats from Foucaucourt to the Albert–Bapaume road, left the German defence on the south bank incapable of resisting another attack and a substantial German retreat began, from the Flaucourt plateau to the west bank of the Somme close to Péronne, while on the north bank Fricourt was abandoned. Several truces were negotiated to recover wounded from no man's land on the British front, where the Fourth Army had lost 57,470 casualties, of which 19,240 men were killed. The French had 1,590 casualties and the German 2nd Army lost 10,000–12,000 casualties. Orders were issued to the Anglo-French armies to continue the offensive on 2 July and a German counter-attack on the north bank of the Somme by the 12th Division, intended for the night of 1/2 July, took until dawn on 2 July to begin. Since 1 July 1916, the cost of the battle and the "meagre gains" have been a source of grief and controversy in Britain; in German and French writing the first day of the Battle of the Somme has been little more than a footnote to the mass losses of 1914–1915 and the Battle of Verdun. |
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