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In 688, Empress Dowager Wu was set to make sacrifices to the deity of the Luo River (洛水, flowing through the Henan province city of Luoyang, then the "Eastern Capital"). Wu summoned senior members of Tang's Li imperial clan to Luoyang. The imperial princes worried that she planned to slaughter them and secure the throne for herself: thus, they plotted to resist her. Before a rebellion could be comprehensively planned out, however, Li Zhen and his son Li Chong, the Prince of Langye rose first, at their respective posts as prefects of Yu Prefecture (豫州, roughly modern Zhumadian, Henan) and Bo Prefecture (博州, roughly modern Liaocheng, Shandong). The other princes were not yet ready, however, and did not rise, and forces sent by Empress Dowager Wu and the local forces crushed Li Chong and Li Zhen's forces quickly. Empress Dowager Wu took this opportunity to arrest Emperor Gaozong's granduncles Li Yuanjia (李元嘉) the Prince of Han, Li Lingkui (李靈夔) the Prince of Lu, and Princess Changle, as well as many other members of the Li clan and she forced them to commit suicide. Even Princess Taiping's husband Xue Shao was implicated and starved to death. In the subsequent years, there continued to be many politically motivated massacres of officials and Li clan members.[37] Monarch of the Zhou dynasty Wu Zetian, shown with her posthumous title Zetian huanghou In 690, Wu took the final step to become the monarch of the newly proclaimed Zhou dynasty, taking the regnal name Wu Zetian, and the title huangdi. Traditional Chinese order of succession (akin to the Salic law in Europe) did not allow a woman to ascend the throne, but Wu Zetian was determined to quash the opposition and the use of the secret police did not subside, but continued, after her taking the throne. While her organization of the civil service system was criticized for its laxity of the promotion of officials, nonetheless, Wu Zetian was considered capable of evaluating the performance of the officials once they were in office. The Song dynasty historian Sima Guang, in his Zizhi Tongjian, commented:[38] Even though the Empress Dowager[39] excessively used official titles to cause people to submit to her, if she saw that someone was incompetent, she would immediately depose or even execute him. She grasped the powers of punishment and award, controlled the state, and made her own judgments as to policy decisions. She was observant and had good judgment, so the talented people of the time also were willing to be used by her. Early reign Shortly after Wu Zetian took the throne, she elevated the status of Buddhism to be above Taoism, officially sanctioning the religion by building temples named Dayun Temple (大雲寺) in each prefecture belonging to the capital regions of the two capitals Luoyang and Chang'an, and created nine senior monks as dukes. She also enshrined seven generations of Wu ancestors at the imperial ancestral temple, although she also continued to offer sacrifices to the Tang emperors Gaozu, Taizong, and Gaozong.[37] She faced the issue of succession. At the time she took the throne, she created Li Dan, the former Emperor Ruizong, crown prince, and bestowed the name of Wu on him.[37] The official Zhang Jiafu, however, convinced the commoner Wang Qingzhi (王慶之) to start a petition drive to make her nephew Wu Chengsi crown prince, arguing that an emperor named Wu should pass the throne to a member of the Wu clan. Wu Zetian was tempted to do so, and when the chancellors Cen Changqian and Ge Fuyuan opposed sternly, they, along with fellow chancellor Ouyang Tong, were executed. Nevertheless, she declined Wang's request to make Wu Chengsi crown prince, but for a time allowed Wang to freely enter the palace to see her. On one occasion, however, when Wang angered her by coming to the palace too much, she asked the official Li Zhaode to batter Wang—and Li Zhaode took the opportunity to batter Wang to death, and his group of petitioners scattered. Li Zhaode then persuaded Wu Zetian to keep Li Dan as crown prince—pointing out that a son was closer in relations than a nephew, and also that if Wu Chengsi became emperor, Emperor Gaozong would never again be worshiped. Wu Zetian agreed, and for some time did not reconsider the matter.[37] Further, at Li Zhaode's warning that Wu Chengsi was becoming too powerful, Wu Zetian stripped Wu Chengsi of his chancellor authority and bestowed on him largely honorific titles without authority.[38] Meanwhile, the power of the secret police officials continued to increase, until they appeared to be curbed starting in about 692, when Lai Junchen was foiled in his attempt to have the chancellors Ren Zhigu, Di Renjie, Pei Xingben, and other officials Cui Xuanli (崔宣禮), Lu Xian (盧獻), Wei Yuanzhong, and Li Sizhen (李嗣真) executed, as Di, under arrest, had hidden a secret petition inside a change of clothes and had it submitted by his son Di Guangyuan (狄光遠). The seven still were exiled, but after this incident, particularly at the urging of Li Zhaode, Zhu Jingze, and Zhou Ju (周矩), the waves of politically motivated massacres decreased, although they did not end entirely.[38] Also in 692, Wu Zetian commissioned the general Wang Xiaojie to attack Tufan, and Wang recaptured the four garrisons of Xiyu that had fallen to Tufan in 670 – Qiuzi, Yutian, Shule, and Suiye.[38] In 693, after Wu Zetian's trusted lady in waiting Wei Tuan'er (韋團兒), who hated Li Dan (the reason why she did so is lost to history), falsely accused Li Dan's wife Crown Princess Liu and Consort Dou of using witchcraft, Wu Zetian had Crown Princess Liu and Consort Dou killed. Li Dan, fearful that he was to be next, did not dare to speak of them. When Wei further planned to falsely accuse Li Dan, however, someone else informed on her, and she was executed. Wu Zetian nevertheless had Li Dan's sons demoted in their princely titles, and when the officials Pei Feigong (裴匪躬) and Fan Yunxian (范雲仙) were accused of secretly meeting Li Dan, she executed Pei and Fan and further, barred officials from meeting Li Dan. There were then accusations that Li Dan was plotting treason, and under Wu Zetian's direction, Lai launched an investigation. Lai arrested Li Dan's servants and tortured them—and the torture was such that many of them were ready to falsely implicate themselves and Li Dan. One of Li Dan's servants, An Jinzang, however, proclaimed Li Dan's innocence and cut his own belly open to swear to that fact. When Wu Zetian heard of what An did, she had doctors attend to An and barely save his life, and then ordered Lai to end the investigation, thus saving Li Dan.[38] In 694, Li Zhaode, who had become powerful after Wu Chengsi's removal, was thought to be too powerful and Wu Zetian removed him.[38] Also around this time, she became highly impressed with a group of mystic individuals—the hermit Wei Shifang (on whom she bestowed a chancellor title briefly), who claimed to be more than 350 years old; an old Buddhist nun who claimed to be a Buddha and capable of predicting the future; and a non-Han man who claimed to be 500 years old. During this time, Wu briefly claimed to be and adopted the cult imagery of Maitreya, the future Buddha, in order to build popular support for her reign.[40] In 695, however, after the imperial meeting hall (明堂) and the Heavenly Hall (天堂) were burned by Huaiyi (who was jealous at Wu Zetian's taking on another lover—the imperial physician Shen Nanqiu (沈南璆)), Wu Zetian became angry at these individuals for failing to predict the fire; the old nun and her students were arrested and made into slaves; Wei committed suicide; and the old non-Han man fled. Subsequently, she also put Huaiyi to death. After this incident, she appeared to pay less attention to mysticism and became even more dedicated than before to the affairs of state.[38] Middle reign Wu Zetian's administration was soon in for various troubles on the western and then northern borders, however. In spring 696, an army she sent, commanded by Wang Xiaojie and Lou Shide against Tufan, was soundly defeated by Tufan generals, the brothers Lun Qinling (論欽陵) and Lun Zanpo (論贊婆), and as a result, she demoted Wang to commoner rank and Lou to be a low level prefectural official, although she eventually restored both of them to general positions.[38] In April of the same year, Wu Zetian recast the Nine Tripod Cauldrons, the symbol of ultimate power in ancient China, to reinforce her authority.[41] A much more serious threat arose in summer 696. The Khitan chieftains Li Jinzhong and Sun Wanrong, brothers-in-law, angry over the mistreatment of the Khitan people by the Zhou official Zhao Wenhui (趙文翽), the prefect of Ying Prefecture (營州, roughly modern Zhaoyang, Liaoning), rebelled, with Li assuming the title of Wushang Khan (無上可汗). Armies that Wu Zetian sent to suppress Li and Sun's rebellion were defeated by Khitan forces, which in turn attacked Zhou proper. Meanwhile, the Eastern Tujue Khan Ashina Mochuo offered to submit, and yet was also launching attacks against Zhou and Khitan—including an attack against Khitan base of operations during the winter of 696, shortly after Li's death, that captured Li's and Sun's families and temporarily halted Khitan operations against Zhou.[38] Sun, after taking over as khan and reorganizing Khitan forces, again attacked Zhou territory and had many victories over Zhou forces, including a battle during which Wang Shijie was killed.[21][38] Wu Zetian tried to allay the situation by making peace with Ashina Mochuo at fairly costly terms—the return of Tujue people who had previously submitted to Zhou and providing Ashina Mochuo with seeds, silk, tools, and iron. In summer 697, Ashina Mochuo launched another attack on Khitan's base of operations, and this time, after his attack, Khitan forces collapsed and Sun was killed in flight, ending the Khitan threat.[21] Meanwhile, also in 697, Lai Junchen, who had at one point lost power but then had returned to power, falsely accused Li Zhaode (who had been pardoned) of crimes, and then planned to falsely accuse Li Dan, Li Zhe, the Wu clan princes, and Princess Taiping, of treason. The Wu clan princes and Princess Taiping acted first against him, accusing him of crimes, and he and Li Zhaode were executed together. After Lai's death, the reign of the secret police largely ended. Gradually, many of the victims of Lai and the other secret police officials were exonerated posthumously.[21] Meanwhile, around this time, Wu Zetian began relationships with two new lovers—the brothers Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong, who became honoured within the palace and were eventually created dukes.[21][42] Around 698, Wu Chengsi and another nephew of Wu Zetian's, Wu Sansi, the Prince of Liang, were repeatedly making attempts to have officials persuade Wu Zetian to create one of them crown prince—again citing the reason that an emperor should pass the throne to someone of the same clan. Di Renjie, who by now had become a trusted chancellor, was firmly against the idea, however, and proposed that Li Zhe be recalled instead. He was supported in this by fellow chancellors Wang Fangqing and Wang Jishan, as well as Wu Zetian's close advisor Ji Xu, who further persuaded the Zhang brothers to support the idea as well. In spring 698, Wu Zetian agreed and recalled Li Zhe from exile. Soon, Li Dan offered to yield the crown prince position to Li Zhe, and Wu Zetian created Li Zhe crown prince. She soon changed his name back to Li Xiǎn and then Wu Xian.[21] Later, Ashina Mochuo demanded a Tang dynasty prince for marriage to his daughter, part of a plot to join his family with the Tang, displace the Zhou, and restore Tang rule over China (under his influence). When Wu Zetian sent a member of her own family, grandnephew Wu Yanxiu (武延秀), to marry Mochuo's daughter instead, he rejected him.[43] Ashina Mochuo had no intention to cement the peace treaty with a marriage; instead, when Wu Yanxiu arrived, he detained Wu Yanxiu and then launched a major attack on Zhou, advancing as far south as Zhao Prefecture (趙州, in modern Shijiazhuang, Hebei) before withdrawing.[21] In 699, however, at least the Tufan threat would cease. The Tufan king Tridu Songtsen, unhappy that Lun Qinling was monopolizing power, took an opportunity when Lun Qinling was away from the capital Lhasa to slaughter Lun Qinling's associates. He then defeated Lun Qinling in battle, and Lun Qinling committed suicide. Lun Zanpo and Lun Qinling's son, Lun Gongren (論弓仁), surrendered to Zhou. After this, Tufan was under internal turmoil for several years, and there was peace for Zhou on the Tufan border.[21] Also in 699, Wu Zetian, realizing that she was growing old, feared that after her death, Li Xian and the Wu clan princes would not be able to have peace with each other, and she made him, Li Dan, Princess Taiping, Princess Taiping's second husband Wu Youji (a nephew of hers), the Prince of Ding, and other Wu clan princes to swear an oath to each other.[21] Late reign Estimated territorial extent of Wu Zetian's empire As Wu Zetian grew older, Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong became increasingly powerful, and even the princes of the Wu clan flattered them. She also increasingly relied on them to handle the affairs of state. This was secretly discussed and criticized by her grandson Li Chongrun, the Prince of Shao, (Li Xian's son), granddaughter Li Xianhui (李仙蕙) the Lady Yongtai (Li Chongrun's sister), and Li Xianhui's husband Wu Yanji (武延基) the Prince of Wei (Wu Zetian's grandnephew and Wu Chengsi's son), but somehow the discussion was leaked, and Zhang Yizhi reported this to Wu Zetian. She ordered the three of them to commit suicide.[44][45] Despite her old age, however, Wu Zetian continued to be interested in finding talented officials and promoting them. Individuals she promoted in her old age included, among others, Cui Xuanwei and Zhang Jiazhen.[42] By 703, Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong had become resentful of Wei Yuanzhong, who by now was a senior chancellor, for dressing down their brother Zhang Changyi (張昌儀) and rejecting the promotion of another brother Zhang Changqi (張昌期). They also were fearful that if Wu Zetian died, Wei would find a way to execute them, and therefore accused Wei and Gao Jian (高戩), an official favoured by Princess Taiping, of speculating on Wu Zetian's old age and death. They initially got Wei's subordinate Zhang Shuo to agree to corroborate the charges, but once Zhang Shuo was before Wu Zetian, he instead accused Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong of forcing him to bear false witness. As a result, Wei, Gao, and Zhang Shuo were exiled, but escaped death.[42] Removal and death In autumn of 704, there began to be accusations of corruption levied against Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong, as well as their brothers Zhang Changqi, Zhang Changyi, and Zhang Tongxiu (張同休). Zhang Tongxiu and Zhang Changyi were demoted, but even though the officials Li Chengjia (李承嘉) and Huan Yanfan advocated that Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong be removed as well, Wu Zetian, taking the suggestion of the chancellor Yang Zaisi, did not remove them. Subsequently, charges of corruption against Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong were renewed by the chancellor Wei Anshi.[42] In winter 704, Wu Zetian became seriously ill for a period, and only the Zhang brothers were allowed to see her; the chancellors were not. This led to speculation that Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong were plotting to take over the throne, and there were repeated accusations of treason. Once her condition improved, Cui Xuanwei advocated that only Li Xian and Li Dan be allowed to attend to her—a suggestion that she did not accept. After further accusations against the Zhang brothers by Huan and Song Jing, Wu Zetian allowed Song to investigate, but before the investigation was completed, she issued a pardon for Zhang Yizhi, derailing Song's investigation.[42] Commemorative stele at Qianling Mausoleum, where Wu Zetian and her husband Emperor Gaozong were buried By spring 705, Wu Zetian was seriously ill again. Zhang Jianzhi, Jing Hui, and Yuan Shuji, planned a coup to kill the Zhang brothers. They convinced the generals Li Duozuo, Li Dan (李湛, note different character than the former emperor), and Yang Yuanyan (楊元琰) and another chancellor, Yao Yuanzhi, to be involved. With agreement from Li Xian as well, they acted on 20 February,[3] killing Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong, and then they had Changsheng Hall (長生殿), where Wu Zetian was residing, surrounded. They then reported to her that the Zhang brothers had been executed for treason, and they then forced her to yield the throne to Li Xian. On 21 February, an edict was issued in her name that made Li Xian regent, and on 22 February, an edict was issued in her name passing the throne to Li Xian. On 23 February, Li Xian formally retook the throne, and the next day, Wu Zetian, under heavy guard, was moved to the subsidiary palace, Shangyang Palace (上陽宮), but was nevertheless honoured with the title of Empress Regnant Zetian Dasheng (則天大聖皇帝).[42] On 3 March,[46] Tang dynasty was restored, ending the Zhou.[41] She died on 16 December,[11] and, pursuant to a final edict issued in her name, was no longer referred to as emperor, but instead as Empress Zetian Dasheng (則天大聖皇后).[41] In 706, Wu Zetian's son Emperor Zhongzong had Wu Zetian interred in a joint burial with his father Emperor Gaozong at the Qianling Mausoleum, located near the capital Chang'an on Mount Liang. Emperor Zhongzong also buried at Qianling his brother Li Xián, son Li Chongrun, and daughter Li Xianhui (李仙蕙) the Lady Yongtai (posthumously honoured as the Princess Yongtai) — victims of Wu Zetian's wrath. Second Zhou dynasty (690–705): Convention: use personal name Temple names Family name and first name Period of reign Era names and their associated dates None Wǔ Zhào(武曌) 690–705 Tiānshòu (天授): 16 October 690 – 21 April 692 (18 months) Rúyì (如意): 22 April – 22 October 692 (6 months) Chángshòu (長壽): 23 October 692 – 8 June 694 (19 ½ months) Yánzài (延載): 9 June 694 – 21 January 695 (7 ½ months) Zhèngshèng (證聖): 22 January – 21 October 695 (9 months) Tiāncèwànsuì (天冊萬歲): 22 October 695 – 19 January 696 (3 months) Wànsuìdēngfēng (萬歲登封): 20 January – 21 April 696 (3 months) Wànsuìtōngtiān (萬歲通天): 22 April 696 – 28 September 697 (17 months) Shéngōng (神功): 29 September – 19 December 697 (2 ½ months) Shènglì (聖曆): 20 December 697 – 26 May 700 (29 months) Jiǔshì (久視): 27 May 700 – 14 February 701 (8 ½ months) Dàzú (大足): 15 February – 25 November 701 (9 ½ months) Cháng'ān (長安): 26 November 701 – 29 January 705 (38 months) Shénlóng (神龍): 30 January – 3 March 705 (Zhou dynasty was abolished on 3 March 705, and the Tang dynasty was restored that same day, but the Shenlong era continued to be used by Emperor Zhongzong until 707) Second Zhou dynasty Wu Zetian proclaimed herself as the ruler of the "Zhou Dynasty", named after the historical Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC); and, thus, from 690 to 705 the Chinese Empire was known as the Zhou dynasty. The traditional historical view, however, is to discount Wu's "Zhou dynasty": dynasties by definition involve the succession of rulers from one family: Wu's "Zhou dynasty" was founded by her, and ended within her lifetime, with her abdication (705). This does not meet the traditional concept of a dynasty. The alternative, is to view Wu's "Zhou dynasty" as the revival of the generally historically-accepted historical Zhou dynasty, which had been ruled (at least nominally) by the Ji family, almost a thousand years before. Either way, Wu's Zhou dynasty is best viewed as a brief interruption of the Li family's Tang dynasty, rather than as a fully realized dynasty. Her claim of founding a new dynasty, however, was little opposed at the time (690).[47] The fifteen-year period which Wu Zetian designated as her "Zhou Dynasty" considered in the context of nearly a half century of de facto rule (ca. 654–705) reveals a remarkable and still debated period of history.[48] In this context, designating a new dynasty, with her as its emperor can be seen as part of her power politics, and the Zhou dynasty of Wu Zetian did have its notable characteristics, as the culmination of her period of ruling. The fifteen years of her Zhou dynasty had its own characteristics, however, these are difficult to separate from Wu's reign of power, which lasted for about half of a century. Secret police-intelligence service Wu Zetian's consolidation of power in part relied on a system of spies. She used informants to choose persons to eliminate, a process which peaked in 697, with the wholesale demotion, exile, or killing of various aristocratic families and scholars, furthermore prohibiting their sons from holding office.[49] Civil service examinations One apparatus of government which fell into Wu's power was the imperial examination system: the basic theory and practice of which was to recruit into government service those men who were the best educated, talented, and having the best potential to perform their duties, and to do so by testing a pool of candidates in order to determine this objectively. This pool was male only, and the qualified pool of candidates and resulting placements into official positions was on a relatively small scale at the time of Wu's assuming control of government. The official tests examined such things considered important for functionaries of the highly developed, bureaucratic government structure of the current imperial government. The qualities sought in a candidate for government service included determining the potential official's level of literacy in terms of reading and writing as well as his possession of the specific knowledge considered necessary and desirable for a governmental official, such as Confucian precepts on the nature of virtue and theory on the proper ordering of and relationships within society. Wu Zetian continued to use the imperial examination system to recruit civil servants, and she introduced major changes in regard to the system that she inherited, including increasing the pool of candidates permitted to take the test, by allowing commoners and gentry, who were previously disqualified by their background, to take them. Another thing she did was to expand the governmental examination system and to greatly increase the importance of this method of recruiting government officials, which she did in 693.[34] Wu provided increased opportunity for the representation within government to people of the North China Plain, versus people of the northwestern aristocratic families, (whom she decimated, anyway); and, the successful candidates who were recruited through the examination system became an elite group within her government.[50] The historical details surrounding and the consequences of Wu Zetian's promoting a new group of people from previously disenfranchised backgrounds into prominence as powerful governmental officials as well as the role of the examination system in this regard, remains a matter of debate for scholars of this subject. Elimination of rivals Wu Zetian eliminated many of her real, potential, or perceived rivals to power by means of death (including execution, suicide by command, and more-or-less directly killing people), demotion, and exile. In some cases her methods were even more extreme, such as in case of the "human pig" (referring to Wu's method of making an example out of a rival by blinding her, cutting out her tongue, amputating her arms and legs, and keeping her alive by feeding her slops and letting her wallow in her own excrement, like a pig). Wu targeted various individuals, including many in her own family and her extended family. In reaction to an attempt to remove her from power, in 684, she massacred twelve entire collateral branches of the imperial family.[49] Besides this, she also altered the ancient balance of power in China, dating back to the Qin dynasty. The old area of the Qin state was later referred to as Guanzhong, literally, the area "within the fortified mountain passes". It was from this area of northwest China that the Ying family of Qin arose to conquer, unifying China into its first historical empire. During the Han dynasty, Sima Qian records in his Shiji that Guanzhong had three-tenths of China's population, but six-tenths of its wealth.[51] Additionally, at the beginning of Wu Zetian's period of ascendency, Guanzhong was still the stronghold of the most nationally powerful aristocratic families, despite the fact that economic development in other parts of China had improved the lot of families in other regions. The Guangzhong aristocracy was not willing to relinquish their hold on the reigns of government, however; while, at the same time, some of the more newly wealthy families in other areas, such as the North China Plain or Hubei were eager for a larger share of national power of their own. Most of the opposition to Wu was from the Guangzhong families of northwest China. Accordingly, she repressed them, instead favoring less privileged families, thus raising to the ranks of power many talented, but less aristocratic families, often recruited through the official examination system.[52] Many of those so favored originated from the North China plain.[53] Through a process of eliminating or diminishing the power of the established aristocracy, whom she perceived as disloyal to her, and establishing a reformed upper class in China loyal to her, Wu Zetian made major social changes which are still being evaluated by historians. Religious engineering Maitreya statue from the reign of Wu Zetian Wu Zetian used her power to increase or to attempt to increase her power by manipulating Buddhist, Daoist, and Confucianist practice, sometimes in reference to the idea of the Mandate of Heaven. There are also allegations of witchcraft or sorcery. Wu began to manipulate the symbolic aspects of religious and imperial power long before she became huangdi, one case being the Sacrifice on Mount Tai, in 666: when Emperor Gaozong offered sacrifices to the deities of heaven and earth at Mount Tai, Empress Wu, in an unprecedented action, offered sacrifices after him, with Princess Dowager Yan, the mother of Emperor Gaozong's brother Li Zhen the Prince of Yue, offering sacrifices after her.[30] Wu Zetian's procession of ladies up Taishan conspicuously linked Wu with the most sacred traditional rites of the Chinese empire.[49] Popular measures Many of Wu Zetian's measures were of a popular nature, and helped her to gain support for her rule. Wu Zetian came to power during a time in China in which the people were fairly contented, the administration was run well, and the economy was characterized by rising living standards.[14] Wu Zetian, as far as the masses were for the most part concerned, continued in this manner. She was determined that free, self-sufficient farmers would continue to work on their own farm land, so she periodically used the juntian, equal-field system, together with updated census figures to ensure fair land allocations, re-allocating as necessary.[50] Much of her success was due to her various edicts (including those known as her "Acts of Grace") which helped to satisfy the needs of the lower classes through various acts of relief, her widening recruitment to government service to include previously excluded gentry and commoners, and by her generous promotions and pay raises for the lower ranks.[12] Military and diplomacy Wu Zetian used her military diplomatic skills to enhance her position. The fubing system of self supportive soldier-farmer colonies which provided local militia and labor services for her government allowed her to maintain her armed forces at reduced expense.[50] She also pursued a policy of military action to expand the empire to its furthest extent ever up to that point in Central Asia, as well as defeating Korea between 660 and 680; although, action against Tibet and to the northwest were less successful, despite victories against Tibetans and Turks:[54] however, in 694, Wu's forces decisively defeated the Tibetan-Western Turk alliance succeeded in retaking the Four Garrisons of Anxi, lost in 668.[55] Meanwhile, in 651, shortly after the Arab defeat of the Sassanid Empire, the first Arab ambassador to China had arrived there.[14] Chancellors during reign Main article: List of Chancellors of Wu Zetian Wu Zetian had many chancellors during her reign as monarch of her self-proclaimed Zhou dynasty, many of them notable in their own right. (For full list see List of Chancellors of Wu Zetian). Power through literature It is suggested that some of Wu's literary activities were designed to augment her power. Literature North Gate Scholars Toward the end of Gaozong's life, Wu began engaging a number of mid-level officials who had literary talent, including Yuan Wanqing (元萬頃), Liu Yizhi, Fan Lübing, Miao Chuke (苗楚客), Zhou Simao (周思茂), and Han Chubin (韓楚賓), to write a number of works on her behalf, including the Biographies of Notable Women (列女傳), Guidelines for Imperial Subjects (臣軌), and New Teachings for Official Staff Members (百僚新誡). Collectively, they became known as the "North Gate Scholars" (北門學士), because they served inside the palace, which was to the north of the imperial government buildings, and Empress Wu sought advice from them to divert the powers of the chancellors.[32] The "twelve Suggestions" Around the new year 675, Empress Wu submitted twelve suggestions. One was that the work of Laozi (whose family name was Li and to whom the Tang imperial clan traced its ancestry), Tao Te Ching, should be added to the required reading for imperial university students. Another was that a three-year mourning period should be observed for a mother's death in all cases, not only in those cases when the father was no longer alive. Emperor Gaozong praised her for her suggestions and adopted them.[32] Modified Chinese characters First version of modified character of "Zhao" Second version of modified character of "Zhao" Text from Wu Zetian-era stele dedicated to Ji Jin (姬晉), the crown prince of King Ling of Zhou, recorded in legends as having risen to heaven to become a god; under the cosmology of Wu Zetian's reign, her lover Zhang Changzong was a reincarnation of Ji Jin; the text of the stele uses modified Chinese characters that she promulgated In 690, Empress Dowager Wu's cousin's son Zong Qinke submitted a number of modified Chinese characters intended to showcase Empress Dowager Wu's greatness. She adopted them, and she took one of the modified characters, Zhao (曌), to be her formal name (i.e., the name by which the people would exercise naming taboo on). 曌 was made from two other characters: Ming (明) on top, meaning "light" or "clarity", and Kong (空) on the bottom, meaning "sky." The implication appeared to be that she would be like the light shining from the sky. (Zhao (照), meaning "shine", from which 曌 was derived, might have been her original name, but evidence of that is inconclusive.)[6] Later that year, after successive petition drives, initially started by the low-level official Fu Youyi, began to occur in waves, asking her to take the throne, Emperor Ruizong offered to take the name of Wu as well. On 18 August, 690,[1] she approved of the requests. She changed the name of the state to Zhou, claiming ancestry from Zhou dynasty, and took the throne as Empress Regnant (with the title of Empress Regnant Shengshen (聖神皇帝), literally "Divine and Sacred Emperor or Empress Regnant"). Emperor Ruizong was deposed and made crown prince with the atypical title of Huangsi (皇嗣).[37] This thus interrupted Tang dynasty, and she became the first (and only) woman to reign over China as Empress Regnant.[56] Poetry Beside her own literary work, Wu Zetian's court was a focus of literary creativity. Forty-six of Wu's poems are collected in the Quantangshi (Collected Tang Poems) and sixty-one essays under her name are recorded in the Quantangwen (Collected Tang Essays).[57] Although a lot of those writings serve political ends, there is one poem in which she laments her mother after she died and expresses her despair at not being able to see her again. Also, during Wu Zetian's reign the imperial court produced various works for which she was a sponsor, such as the anthology of the poetry of her court known as the Collection of Precious Glories (Zhuying ji), which contained poems by Cui Rong, Li Jiao, Zhang Yue, and others, arranged according to the official rank at the court of the individuals included.[58] Among the literary developments that took place during the time of Wu Zetian (and partly at her court) was the final stylistic development of the "new style" poetry of the regulated verse (jintishi), by the poetic pair Song Zhiwen and Shen Quanqi. Wu Zetian also engaged in patronage of scholars by founding an institute to produce the Collection of Biographies of Famous Women.[49] The development of what is considered to by the characteristic Tang dynasty poetry is traditionally ascribed to Chen Zi'ang,[59] one of Wu's ministers. Literary allusions Considering the events of her life, literary allusions to Wu Zetian may carry several connotations: a woman who has inappropriately overstepped her bounds, the hypocrisy of preaching compassion while simultaneously engaging in a pattern of corrupt and vicious behavior, and ruling by pulling strings in the background. For many centuries, Wu was used by the Chinese establishment as an example of what can go wrong when a woman is placed in charge. Such sexist opposition to her was only lifted during the late 1960s, when Mao Zedong's wife Jiang Qing rehabilitated Wu as part of a propaganda campaign to suggest she be considered as a successor to her ailing husband. In his biography Wu, British author Jonathan Clements has pointed out that these wildly differing uses of a historical figure often have led to schizophrenic and often hysterical characterizations. Many alleged poisonings and other incidents, such as the premature death of her daughter, may have rational explanations that have been twisted by later opponents. Evaluation Quotes The traditional Chinese historical view on Wu Zetian generally was mixed—admiring her for her abilities in governing the state, but vilifying her for her actions in seizing imperial power. Luo Binwang even wrote along these lines in a declaration during her lifetime, in support of Li Jingye's rebellion. Typical was a commentary by the Later Jin dynasty historian Liu Xu, the lead editor of the Book of Tang:[60] The year that Lady Wu declared herself regent, heroic individuals were all mournful of the unfortunate turn of events, worried that the dynasty would fall, and concerned that they could not repay the grace of the deceased emperor [i.e., Emperor Gaozong] and protect his sons. Soon thereafter, great accusations arose, and many innocent people were falsely accused and stuck their necks out in waiting for execution. Heaven and earth became like a huge cage, and even if one could escape it, where could he go? That was lamentable. In the past, the trick of covering the nose[61] surprised the realm in its poisonousness, and the disaster of the human pig[62] caused the entire state to mourn. In order to take over as empress, Empress Wu strangled her own infant daughter; her willingness to crush her own flesh and blood showed how great her viciousness and vile nature was, although this is nothing more than what evil individuals and jealous women might do. However, she accepted the words of righteousness and honored the upright. Although she was like a hen that crowed, she eventually returned the rightful rule to her son. She quickly dispelled the accusation against Wei Yuanzhong, comforted Di Renjie with kind words, respected the will of the times and suppressed her favorites, and listened to honest words and ended the terror of the secret police officials. This was good, this was good. Some of the diversity in terms of points of agreement and even outright contradictions in modern evaluations of Wu Zetian can be seen in the following quotes by modern non-Chinese authors: "Wu Zetian (690–705) was an extraordinary woman, attractive, exceptionally gifted, politically astute and an excellent judge of men. With single minded determination, she overcame the opposition of the Confucian establishment through her own efforts, unique among palace women by not using her own family. Her rise to power was steeped in blood...." Ann Paludan[63] "To the horror of traditional Chinese historians, all members of the shih class, the continued success of the T'ang was in large measure due to an ex-concubine who finally usurped the throne itself....Though she was ruthless towards her enemies, the period of her ascendency was a good one for China. Government was sound, no rebellions occurred, abuses in the army and administration were stamped out and Korea was annexed, an achievement no previous Chinese had ever managed." Yong Yap Cotterell and Arthur Cotterell.[52] "China's only woman ruler, Empress Wu was a remarkably skilled and able politician, but her murderous and illicit methods of maintaining power gave her a bad reputation among male bureaucrats. It also fostered overstaffing and many kinds of corruption." John King Fairbank[50] Gender issues Although short-lived, the Zhou dynasty, according to some historians, resulted in more equality between the sexes during the succeeding part of the Tang dynasty[citation needed]. Confucian viewpoints Wu Zetian's rise and reign has been criticized harshly by Confucian historians, but has been viewed in a different light after the 1950s. In the early period of the Tang dynasty, because all the emperors were her direct descendants, the evaluation for Wu Zetian were relatively positive. Commentary in subsequent periods, however, especially the book Zizhi Tongjian complied by Sima Guang, criticized Wu Zetian harshly. By the period of Southern Song dynasty, when Neo-Confucianism was firmly established as the mainstream political ideology of China, their ideology determined the evaluation for Wu Zetian. In popular culture The memory of Wu Zetian lives on through works of fiction, films, television shows, and at least one computer game. Works of fiction A fictionalized Wu Zetian appears together with Di Renjie (Judge Dee) in Eleanor Cooney & Daniel Alteri's mystery novel Deception: A Novel of Mystery and Madness in Ancient China A novel, entitled The Walking Boy, by Lydia Kwa was published in 2005 by Key Porter Books, Canada. Lady Wu, written by Lin Yutang, combines thoroughly researched historical data and storytelling to weave a sensually vicious portrayal of the woman who would be Emperor. Impératrice (French), biographical novel by Shan Sa, born in Beijing, and based on Empress Wu's life. Translated into: Empress, for English ; Jotei: Waga na wa Sokuten Bukō (女帝: わが名は則天武后, trans. "Female emperor: My name is Empress Wu Zetian"), for Japanese; Kaiserin, for German. A historical novel, entitled Empress, by Evelyn McCune tells Wu Jao's story from early adolescence, detailing her relationships with two Tang emperors as well as he reign as emperor in her own right. (Ballantine Books, 1994) A historical novel with the title Cairen Wu Zhao was written by Chinese novelist Su Tong elaborating her life and her emotional experience. Isle of Woman (Tor Fantasy, 1993) by Piers Anthony contains a chapter about Wu Zetian's rise to power. Green Dragon, White Tiger (Onyx, 1988) by Irish writer Annette Motley, a historical romantic fiction of the empress. Nüdi Qiying Zhuan (女帝奇英傳), a historical Wuxia novel by Liang Yusheng. Ri Yue Dang Kong (日月當空), a historical Wuxia novel by Huang Yi. Films The Empress Wu Tse-Tien (武則天), a 1939 Chinese film starring Violet Koo (顧蘭君). Empress Wu Zetian (武則天), a 1949 Hong Kong film starring Hung Sau-man (孔繡雲). The Empress Wu Tse-tien (武則天), a 1963 Hong Kong film produced by the Shaw Brothers Studio, starring Li Li-hua (李麗華). Master Hui Neng (六祖慧能傳), a 1987 Taiwanese film featuring Ivy Ling Po as Wu Zetian. Detective Dee and the Mystery of the Phantom Flame (狄仁傑之通天帝國), a 2010 film featuring Carina Lau as Wu Zetian. Young Detective Dee: Rise of the Sea Dragon (狄仁杰之神都龙王), a 2013 film featuring Carina Lau as Wu Zetian. Television Wu Zetian (武則天), a 1976 Hong Kong television series produced by Commercial Television. Lee Tong-ming (李通明) starred as Wu Zetian while Seung Yee (湘漪) portrayed an older Wu. Empress Wu (武則天), a 1984 Hong Kong television series produced by ATV, starring Petrina Fung. The Empress of the Dynasty (一代女皇), a 1985 Taiwanese television series produced by CTV, starring Angela Pan. Tang Ming Huang (唐明皇), a 1990 Chinese television series aired on CCTV-1, based on events in the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang. Zhu Lin played Wu Zetian. Wu Zetian (武則天), a 1995 Chinese television series produced by CCTV, starring Liu Xiaoqing. The Love Story in the Fantasyland (鏡花緣傳奇), a 2000 Hong Kong television series produced by ATV. It was based on the novel Flowers in the Mirror and starred Liza Wang as Wu Zetian. Palace of Desire (大明宮詞), a 2000 Chinese television series produced by CCTV, with Wu Zetian's daughter Princess Taiping as the main character. Kuei Ya-lei played Wu Zetian. Love Legend of the Tang Dynasty (大唐情史), a 2001 Chinese television series about Emperor Taizong's daughter Princess Gaoyang. Qin Lan played a young Wu Zetian. Whatever It Takes (天子尋龍), a 2003 Hong Kong television series produced by TVB. Law Koon-lan (羅冠蘭) played Wu Zetian. Zhizun Hongyan (至尊紅顏), a 2004 television series aired in Taiwan on CTS, starring Alyssa Chia (賈靜雯) as Wu Zetian. Amazing Detective Di Renjie (神探狄仁傑), a four-season Chinese television series about Di Renjie, aired from 2004 to 2010 on CCTV-8. Lü Zhong (呂中) played Wu Zetian. Wu Zi Bei Ge (無字碑歌), a 2006 Chinese television series starring Siqin Gaowa as Wu Zetian. Zhen Guan Zhi Zhi (貞觀之治), a 2006 Chinese television series about the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang. Zhang Di (張笛) played a young Wu Zetian. The Shadow of Empress Wu (日月凌空), a 2007 Chinese television series produced by CCTV, about the relationship between Wu Zetian (Liu Xiaoqing) and a fictional female official Xie Yaohuan (Huang Shengyi). The Greatness of a Hero (盛世仁傑), a 2009 Hong Kong television series produced by TVB, about Di Renjie. Rebecca Chan played Wu Zetian. Secret History of Empress Wu (武則天祕史), a 2011 Chinese television series produced by Hunan TV. Wu Zetian was portrayed by three different actresses at three stages of her life. Yin Tao (殷桃) played the young Wu Zetian while Liu Xiaoqing and Siqin Gaowa played Wu Zetian in her middle and old age respectively. Da Tang Nü Xun An (大唐女巡按), a 2011 Chinese television series about Xie Yaohuan, a fictional female detective-official serving in Wu Zetian's court. Gillian Chung played Xie Yaohuan and Wang Ji (王姬) portrayed Wu Zetian. Beauty World (唐宮美人天下), a 2011 Chinese television series starring Zhang Ting (張庭) as Wu Zetian. Women of the Tang Dynasty (唐宮燕之女人天下), a 2013 Chinese television series starring Kara Hui as Wu Zetian. Young Sherlock (少年神探狄仁傑), a 2014 Chinese television series featuring producer Ruby Lin as Wu Zetian. The Empress of China (武則天), an upcoming Chinese television series starring producer Fan Bingbing as Wu Zetian. Creation of a Beauty (美人製造), an upcoming Chinese television series featuring Sheren Tang as Wu Zetian. The episode "The Blind Banker" from the first series of the BBC television series Sherlock revolves around a stolen jade hairpin implied to have belonged to Wu Zetian. Computer games Wu Zetian is depicted as a leader of China in Sid Meier's Civilization II (1996), Civilization V (2010) and Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings (1999 Microsoft Corporation). |
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