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Hamilcar’s immediate objective was to secure access to the gold and silver mines of Sierra Morena, either by direct and indirect control.[91] Negotiations with the “Tartessian” tribes were successfully concluded, but Hamilcar faced hostility from the Turdetani or Turduli tribe, near the foothills of modern Seville and Cordoba. The Iberians had support from Celtiberian tribes and were under the command of two chieftains, Istolatios and his brother. Hamilcar defeated the confederates, killed the leaders and several of their soldiers, while he released a number of prisoners and incorporated 3,000 of the enemy into his army. The Turdetani surrendered.[92] Hamilcar then fought a 50,000 strong army under a chieftain named Indortes. The Iberian army fled before the battle was joined. Hamilcar besieged Indortes, tortured and crucified him after his surrender but allowed 10,000 of the captured enemy soldiers to go home.[93] Having secured control over the mines, and the river routes of Guadalquiver and Guadalete giving access to the mining area, Gades began to mint silver coins from 237 BC. Carthaginians may have taken control of the mining operations and introduced new technologies to increase production.[94] Hamilcar now had the means to pay for his mercenary army and also to ship silver ore to Carthage to help pay off the war indemnity. Hamilcar was in a secure enough position in Iberia to send Hasdrubal the Fair with an army to Africa to quell a Numidian rebellion in 236 BC. Hasdrubal defeated the rebels, killing 8,000 and taking 2,000 prisoners before returning to Iberia. Expanding Eastward 235 BC – 231 BC Hamilcar, after subduing Turdetania[95] next moved east from Gades towards Cape Nao. He met fierce resistance from the Iberia tribes, even the friendly Bastetani offered battle. Four years of constant campaigns, details of which are not known, saw Hamilcar subdue the area between Gades and Cape Nao. In the process, Hamilcar created a professional army of Iberians, Africans, Numidians and other mercenaries that Hasdrubal the Fair would inherit and Hannibal would later lead across the Alps to immortality. By 231 BC, Hamilcar Barca had consolidated his Iberian territorial gains and established the city of Arka Luke,[96] probably in 235 BC, to guard Punic holdings, and possibly took over the area of Massalian colonies near the mouth of Sucro River.[97] Massalia, probably alarmed by the Carthaginian advance towards their area of influence, mentioned this expansion to the Romans, who decided to investigate the matter. Rome takes a look While Hamilcar campaigned in Iberia, Rome was entangled in Sardinia, Corsica and Liguria, where the natives had put up stiff resistance against Roman occupation - campaigns had been fought in these areas between 236 – 231 BC to retain and expand Roman dominion. Rome suspected Carthage of aiding the natives, and had sent embassies to Carthage in 236, 235, 233 and 230 BC to accuse and threaten the Punic state. Nothing had come of these supposed episodes and some scholars doubt their authenticity. In 231 BC, a Roman embassy visited Hamilcar in Spain to inquire about his activities. Hamilcar simply replied that he was fighting to gather enough booty to pay off the war indemnity.[98] The Romans withdrew and did not bother the Carthaginians in Spain until 226 BC. Final Campaigns 231 BC – 228 BC After the establishment of Akra Luke, Hamilcar began to move northwest; alas, no records of his campaigns exist. Hamilcar had split his forces in the winter of 228 BC, Hasdrubal the Fair was sent on a separate campaign, while Hamilcar besieged an Iberian town, then sent the bulk of his troops to winter quarters at Arke Luke. Hamilcar’s sons, Hannibal and Hasdrubal, had accompanied him. The town, called Helike, is commonly identified with Elche, but given that it is situated close to Hamilcar’s base at Arke Luke from which he could readily draw reinforcement, it cannot be the place where the following events unfolded.[99] It is possible that Hamilcar died battling the Vettoni, who lived across the Tagus west of Toledo and to the north of Turduli and northwest of Oretani territory.[100] Death of Hamilcar Orissus, chieftain of the Oretani tribe, came to the assistance of the besieged town. There are several versions to what happened next: Orissus offered to aid Hamilcar, then attacked the Punic army, and Hamilcar drowned during a retreat across the Jucar river;[101] the Oretani sent ox-driven carts to the Carthaginian position, then set them on fire and Hamilcar died in the resulting melee;[102] Hamilcar accepted an offer to parley, then led the enemy in one direction while Hannibal and Hasdrubal Barca fled in the opposite direction and Hamilcar was thrown from his horse and drowned in a river;[103] or he fell in battle in an unknown corner of Iberia against an unnamed tribe.[104] In eight years, Hamilcar had secured an extensive territory in Hispania by force of arms and diplomacy, but his premature death in battle (228 BC) denied Carthage a complete conquest. Legend tells that he founded the port of Barcino (deriving its name from the Barca family), which was later adopted and used by the Roman Empire and is, today, the city of Barcelona.[105] Despite the similarities between the name of the Barcid family and that of the modern city, it is usually accepted that the origin of the name "Barcelona" is the Iberian Barkeno.[106] Family Main article: Barcid Hamilcar had at least three daughters and at least three sons. His first daughter was married to Bomilcar, who was a suffete of Carthage and may have commanded the Punic fleet in the Second Punic war. His grandson, Hanno, was an important commander in the army of his son Hannibal. The second daughter was married to Hasdrubal the Fair. His third daughter married the Berber ally Naravas,[107] a Numidian chieftain whose defection had saved Hamilcar and his army during the mercenary war. Hamilcar had three sons, Hannibal, Hasdrubal and Mago, who were all to have distinguished military careers. An unnamed fourth son is often referred to, but details are lacking. Repute He allegedly founded the city of Barcino (currently named Barcelona) while he was in Hispania.[108] Hamilcar’s Legacy: The Grand Strategy Hamilcar stood out far above the Carthaginians of his age in military and diplomatic skill and in strength of patriotism; in these qualities he was surpassed only by his son Hannibal, whom he may have imbued with his own deep suspicion of Rome and trained to be his successor in the conflict. While one historian commented that had he not been the father of Hannibal, Hamilcar’s Sicilian front might have received scant notice.[109] Hamilcar is thought to be the best commander of the First Punic War and as a man, Cato placed Hamilcar a cut above most leaders, including most Romans.[110] By the power of his personal influence among the mercenaries and the surrounding African peoples, superior strategy and some luck, as well as cooperation, if unenthusiastic, from Hanno the Great, Hamilcar crushed the revolt by 237 BC amid a war marked with cruel atrocities from both sides.[111] Enemy of Rome The milder terms Rome had given to Carthage in the aftermath of the First Punic War, and the friendly conduct of Rome during the mercenary war might have raised the possibility of a long period of peace between the two powers, but the seizure of Sardinia destroyed any real chance of peace among equals. According to Polybius, the causes of the Second Punic war were as follows: Hamilcar felt that Carthage had given up on Sicily too soon in the First Punic War. Hamilcar had been undefeated and was forced to make peace. The subsequent Mercenary War showed that Carthage was capable of further military effort. Roman occupation of Sardinia, and then Corsica, indicated the untrustworthiness of Romans and their willingness to meddle when they saw fit regardless of treaties between the powers. This is the second and most important cause of the Second Punic War.[112] This had aroused resentment among many Punic citizens, and Carthage had no hope of resisting Rome at their weakened condition. The success of Hamilcar and his family in Spain, which rebuilt Carthaginian finances and created a standing army, giving Carthage the means to resist Rome. Based on this, and Hannibal’s oath, some historians infer that Hamilcar’s post-Mercenary War activities were aimed at eventual war with Rome, which was inherited by his sons, and some further suggested that Hamilcar devised the strategy of invading Italy by crossing the Alps as well as Hannibal’s battle tactics.[113] Without Punic records to cross reference, these remain mere supposition. Hamilcar in literature Salammbô, by Gustave Flaubert Pride of Carthage, by David Anthony Durham The cat of the titular protagonist of The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard, by Anatole France, begins the book with a cat named Hamilcar, and ends it with a kitten named Hannibal. In the manga Bio Booster Armor Guyver, one of the villains is named Hamilcar Barcas. The father of the protagonist, Claus Valca, in the anime television series Last Exile is named Hamilcar Valca, "Valca" being a Japanese mis-transliteration of "Barca" (V for B, and L for R). In the 2002 film The Emperor's Club, starring Kevin Kline, Hamilcar Barca is the subject of a question asked during the final stages of an educational competition. The question, trivial in nature, initiates an important turning point in how events of the story unfold. "Hamilcar Barca," a poem by Roger Casement |
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