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Shortly after the Farhud in 1941, Mossad LeAliyah Bet sent emissaries to Iraq to begin to organize emigration to Israel, initially by recruiting people to teach Hebrew and hold lectures on Zionism. In late 1942, one of the emissaries explained the size of their task of converting the Iraqi community to Zionism, writing that "we have to admit that there is not much point in [organizing and encouraging emigration]... We are today eating the fruit of many years of neglect, and what we didn't do can't be corrected now through propaganda and creating one-day-old enthusiasm".[107] In 1948, there were approximately 150,000 Jews in Iraq. The community was concentrated in Baghdad and Basra. By 2003, there were only about 100 left of this previously thriving community. Around 8,000 Jews left Iraq between 1919–48, with another 2,000 leaving between mid-1948 to mid-1950.[46] However, in the wake of the 1950 Denaturalisation Act and the 1950-51 Baghdad bombings, more than 120,000 Jews left the country in less than a year.[46] The Iraqi government convicted and hanged a number of suspected Zionist agents for perpetrating the bombings, but the issue of who was responsible remains a subject of scholarly dispute. Before United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine vote, the Iraq’s prime minister Nuri al-Said told British diplomats that if the United Nations solution was not “satisfactory”, “severe measures should [would?] be taken against all Jews in Arab countries".[108] In a speech at the General Assembly Hall at Flushing Meadow, New York, on Friday, 28 November 1947, Iraq’s Foreign Minister, Fadel Jamall, included the following statement: Partition imposed against the will of the majority of the people will jeopardize peace and harmony in the Middle East. Not only the uprising of the Arabs of Palestine is to be expected, but the masses in the Arab world cannot be restrained. The Arab-Jewish relationship in the Arab world will greatly deteriorate. There are more Jews in the Arab world outside of Palestine than there are in Palestine. In Iraq alone, we have about one hundred and fifty thousand Jews who share with Moslems and Christians all the advantages of political and economic rights. Harmony prevails among Moslems, Christians and Jews. But any injustice imposed upon the Arabs of Palestine will disturb the harmony among Jews and non-Jews in Iraq; it will breed inter-religious prejudice and hatred.[109] In 19 February 1949, Nuri al-Said acknowledged the bad treatment that the Jews had been victims of in Iraq during the recent months. He warned that unless Israel would behave itself, events might take place concerning the Iraqi Jews.[110] Al-Said's threats had no impact at the political level on the fate of the Jews but were widely published in the media.[111] Like most Arab League states, Iraq initially forbade the emigration of its Jews after the 1948 war on the grounds that allowing them to go to Israel would strengthen that state. However, by 1949 Jews were escaping Iraq at about a rate of 1,000 a month.[112] At the time, the British believed that the Zionist underground was agitating in Iraq in order to assist US fund-raising and to "offset the bad impression caused by the Jewish attitudes to Arab refugees".[113] In 19 Oct 1949 the Iraqi government proposed to exchange Iraqi Jews for Palestinian refugees.[114] At times, Iraqi politicians candidly acknowledged that they wanted to expel their Jewish population for reasons of their own, having nothing to do with the Palestinian exodus.[115] In March 1950 Iraq reversed their earlier ban on Jewish emigration to Israel and passed a law of one year duration allowing Jews to emigrate on the condition of relinquishing their Iraqi citizenship. According to Abbas Shiblak, many scholars state that this was a result of British, American and Israeli politicians on Tawfiq al-Suwaidi's government, with some studies suggesting there were secret negotiations.[116] According to Ian Black,[citation needed] the Iraqi government was motivated by "economic considerations, chief of which was that almost all the property of departing Jews reverted to the state treasury"[citation needed] and also that "Jews were seen as a restive and potentially troublesome minority that the country was best rid of."[citation needed] Israel was at first reluctant to absorb all the Jews, but eventually yielded and mounted an operation called "Ezra and Nehemiah" to bring as many of the Iraqi Jews as possible to Israel. The Zionist movement at first tried to regulate the amount of registrants until issues relating to their legal status were clarified. Later, it allowed everyone to register. Two weeks after the law went into force, the Iraqi interior minister demanded a CID investigation over why Jews were not registering. A few hours after the movement allowed registration, four Jew were injured in a bomb attack at a café in Baghdad. Nuri al-Said, the Iraqi prime minister, was determined to drive the Jews out of his country as quickly as possible,[context?][117][118][119] and on August 21, 1950 he threatened to revoke the license of the company transporting the Jewish exodus if it did not fulfill its daily quota of 500 Jews.[citation needed] On September 18, 1950, Nuri al-Said summoned a representative of the Jewish community and claimed Israel was behind the emigration delay, threatening to "take them to the borders" and forcibly expel the Jews[citation needed] On October 12, 1950, Nuri as-said summoned a senior official of the transport company and made similar threats, justifying the expulsion of Jews by the number of Palestinian Arabs fleeing from Israel.[citation needed] Two months before the law expired, after about 85,000 Jews had registered, a bombing campaign began against the Jewish community of Baghdad. All but a few thousand of the remaining Jews then registered for emigration. In all, about 120,000 Jews left Iraq. Between April 1950 and June 1951, Jewish targets in Baghdad were struck five times. Iraqi authorities then arrested 3 Jews, claiming they were Zionist activists, and sentenced two — Shalom Salah Shalom and Yosef Ibrahim Basri — to death. The third man, Yehuda Tajar, was sentenced to 10 years in prison.[120] In May and June, 1951, arms caches were discovered which allegedly belonged to the Zionist underground, allegedly supplied by the Yishuv after the Farhud of 1941.[citation needed] There has been much debate as to whether the bombs were planted by the Mossad to encourage Iraqi Jews to emigrate to Israel or if they were planted by Muslim extremists to help drive out the Jews. This has been the subject of lawsuits and inquiries in Israel.[106][121] The emigration law was to expire on March 1951, one year after the law was enacted. On 10 March 1951, 64,000 Iraqi Jews were still waiting to emigrate, the government enacted a new law blocking the assets of Jews who had given up their citizenship, and extending the emigration period.[122] In 1951, the Iraqi Government made advocating Zionism or belonging to a Zionist organization a crime and ordered the expulsion of Jews who refused to sign a statement of anti-Zionism.[123] In 1969, about 50 of the Jews who remained were executed; 11 were publicly executed after show trials and hundred thousand Iraqis marched past the bodies in a carnival-like atmosphere.[124] Lebanon See also: History of the Jews in Lebanon Maghen Abraham Synagogue in Beirut, Lebanon The area now known as Lebanon was the home of one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world, dating back to at least 300 BCE. In November 1945, fourteen Jews were killed in anti-Jewish riots in Tripoli.[125] Unlike in other Arab countries, the Lebanese Jewish community did not face grave peril during the 1948 Arab-Israel War and was reasonably protected by governmental authorities. Lebanon was also the only Arab country that saw a post-1948 increase in its Jewish population, principally due to the influx of Jewish refugees coming from Syria and Iraq.[126] In 1948, there were approximately 24,000 Jews in Lebanon.[127] The largest communities of Jews in Lebanon were in Beirut, and the villages near Mount Lebanon, Deir al Qamar, Barouk, Bechamoun, and Hasbaya. While the French mandate saw a general improvement in conditions for Jews, the Vichy regime placed restrictions on them. The Jewish community actively supported Lebanese independence after World War II and had mixed attitudes toward Zionism.[citation needed] However, negative attitudes toward Jews increased after 1948, and, by 1967, most Lebanese Jews had emigrated—to Israel, the United States, Canada, and France. In 1971, Albert Elia, the 69-year-old Secretary-General of the Lebanese Jewish community, was kidnapped in Beirut by Syrian agents and imprisoned under torture in Damascus, along with Syrian Jews who had attempted to flee the country. A personal appeal by the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees, Prince Sadruddin Agha Khan, to the late President Hafez al-Assad failed to secure Elia's release. The remaining Jewish community was particularly hard hit by the civil war in Lebanon, and, by mid-1970s, the community collapsed. In the 1980s, Hezbollah kidnapped several Lebanese Jewish businessmen, and in the 2004 elections, only one Jew voted in the municipal elections. There are now only between 20 and 40 Jews living in Lebanon.[128][129] Syria See also: History of the Jews in Syria Ruins of the Central Synagogue of Aleppo after the 1947 Aleppo pogrom Jewish wedding in Aleppo, Syria (Ottoman Empire), 1914. In 1947, rioters in Aleppo burned the city's Jewish quarter and killed 75 people.[130] As a result, nearly half of the Jewish population of Aleppo opted to leave the city,[4] initially to neighbouring Lebanon.[131] In 1948, there were approximately 30,000 Jews in Syria. In 1949, following defeat in the Arab-Israeli War, the CIA backed March 1949 Syrian coup d'état installed Husni al-Za'im as the President of Syria. Za'im permitted the emigration of large numbers of Syrian Jews, and 5,000 left to Israel.[132] The subsequent Syrian governments placed severe restrictions on the Jewish community, including barring emigration.[132] Over the next few years, many Jews managed to escape, and the work of supporters, particularly Judy Feld Carr,[133] in smuggling Jews out of Syria, and bringing their plight to the attention of the world, raised awareness of their situation. Although the Syrian government attempted to stop Syrian Jews from exporting their assets, the American consulate in Damascus noted in 1950 that "the majority of Syrian Jews have managed to dispose of their property and to emigrate to Lebanon, Italy, and Israel"[134][135] In November 1954, the Syrian government lifted the ban on Jewish emigration.[136] Following the Madrid Conference of 1991 the United States put pressure on the Syrian government to ease its restrictions on Jews, and on Passover in 1992, the government of Syria began granting exit visas to Jews on condition that they do not emigrate to Israel. At that time, the country had several thousand Jews. The majority of the Jewish community left for the United States, although some went to France and Turkey, and those who wanted to go to Israel were brought there in a two-year covert operation. There is a large and vibrant Syrian Jewish community in South Brooklyn, New York. In 2004, the Syrian government attempted to establish better relations with the emigrants, and a delegation of a dozen Jews of Syrian origin visited Syria in the spring of that year.[137] Yemen, Aden and Djibouti Main article: Operation Magic Carpet (Yemen) See also: Yemenite Jews and History of the Jews in Aden If one includes Aden, there were about 63,000 Jews in Yemen in 1948. Today, there are about 200 left. In 1947, rioters killed at least 80 Jews in Aden, a British colony in southern Yemen. In 1948 the new Zaydi Imam Ahmad bin Yahya unexpectedly allowed his Jewish subjects to leave Yemen, and tens of thousands poured into Aden. The Israeli government's Operation Magic Carpet evacuated around 44,000 Jews from Yemen to Israel in 1949 and 1950.[138] Emigration continued until 1962, when the civil war in Yemen broke out. A small community remained unknown until 1976, though it has mostly immigrated from Yemen since. Bahrain See also: History of the Jews in Bahrain and 1947 Manama pogrom Bahrain's tiny Jewish community, mostly the Jewish descendants of immigrants who entered the country in the early 20th century from Iraq, numbered 600 in 1948. In the wake of the November 29, 1947, U.N. Partition vote, demonstrations against the vote in the Arab world were called for December 2–5. The first two days of demonstrations in Bahrain saw rock throwing against Jews, but on December 5, mobs in the capital of Manama looted Jewish homes and shops, destroyed the synagogue, beat any Jews they could find, and murdered one elderly woman.[139] Over the next few decades, most left for other countries, especially Britain; as of 2006 only 36 remained.[140] Sudan See also: History of the Jews in Sudan The Jewish community in Sudan was concentrated in the capital Khartoum, and had been established in the late 19th century. By the middle of the 20th century the community included some 350 Jews, mainly of Sephardic background, who had constructed a synagogue and a Jewish school. Between 1948 and 1956, some members of the community left the country, and it finally ceased to exist by the early 1960s.[141][142] Exodus from other Muslim countries Further information: History of the Jews under Muslim rule Afghanistan See also: History of the Jews in Afghanistan By 1948, about 5,000 Jews existed in Afghanistan, and after they were allowed to emigrate in 1951, most of them moved to Israel and the United States.[143] By 1969, some 300 remained, and most of these left after the Soviet invasion of 1979, leaving 10 Afghan Jews in 1996, most of them in Kabul. More than 10,000 Jews of Afghan descent presently live in Israel. Over 200 families of Afghan Jews live in New York City in USA.[143] Iran See also: History of the Jews in Iran and Persian Jews Historian Ervand Abrahamian estimates 50,000 Jews were living in Iran around 1900,[144] with majority of them residing in Yazd, Shiraz, Tehran, Isfahan and Hamadan.[144] The violence and disruption in Arab life associated with the founding of Israel in 1948 drove an increased anti-Jewish sentiment in neighbouring Iran as well. According to Trita Parsi, by 1951 only 8 thousand of 100 thousand Iranian Jews chose to emigrate to Israel.[145] Anti-Jewish sentiment was on the rise under Mosaddeh,[146] and continued until 1953, in part because of the weakening of the central government and strengthening of clergy in the political struggles between the shah and prime minister Mohammad Mossadegh. This continued until 1953, in part because of the weakening of the central government and strengthening of clergy in the political struggles between the shah and prime minister Mohammad Mossadegh. According to Sanasarian, from 1948–1953, about one-third of Iranian Jews, most of them poor, emigrated to Israel.[146] According to the first national census taken in 1956, Jewish population in Iran stood at 65,232,[147] but there's no reliable data about migrations in the first half of the 20th century. David Littman puts the total figure of emigrants to Israel in 1948–1978 at 70,000.[148] After the deposition of Mossadegh in 1953, the reign of shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was the most prosperous era for the Jews of Iran. The community however began to experience hardships due to political instability in the 1970s. David Littman puts the total figure of emigrants to Israel in 1948–1978 at 70,000.[148][verification needed] The tensions between the loyalists of the Shah and Islamists through the 1970s initiated the mass-migration of Iranian Jews, first affecting the higher-class. Instability caused thousands of Persian Jews to leave Iran prior to revolution - some seeking better economic opportunities or stability, while others afraid of the potential Islamic takeover. Pakistan See also: History of the Jews in Pakistan At the time of Pakistani independence in 1947, some 1,300 Jews remained in Karachi, many of them Bene Israel Jews, observing Sephardic Jewish rites. Other communities of Baghdadi Jews and Mizrahi Jews from Iran were found in the city. A small Ashkenazi population was also present in the city. Some Karachi streets still bear names that hark back to a time when the Jewish community was more prominent; such as Ashkenazi Street, Abraham Reuben Street (named after the former member of the Karachi Municipal Corporation), Ibn Gabirol Street, and Moses Ibn Ezra Street - although some streets have been renamed, they are still locally referred to by their original names. A small Jewish graveyard still exists in the vast Mewa Shah Graveyard near the shrine of a Sufi saint. The neighbourhood of Baghdadi in Lyari Town is named for the Baghdadi Jews who once lived there. A community of Bukharan Jews was also found in the city of Peshawar, where many buildings in the old city feature a Star of David as exterior decor as a sign of the Hebrew origins of its owners. Members of the community settled in the city as merchants as early as the 17th century, although the bulk arrived as refugees fleeing the advance of the Russian Empire into Bukhara, and later the Russian Revolution in 1917. Both the Jewish communities in Karachi and Peshawar have since been almost entirely decimated. The exodus of Jewish refugees from Pakistan to Bombay and other cities in India came just prior to the creation of Israel in 1948, when anti-Israeli sentiments rose. By 1953, fewer than 500 Jews were reported to reside in all of Pakistan. Anti-Israeli sentiment and violence often flared during ensuing conflicts in the Middle East, resulting in a further movement of Jewish refugees out of Pakistan. Presently, a large number of Jews from Karachi live in the city of Ramla in Israel. Turkey See also: History of the Jews in Turkey and 2003 Istanbul bombings The Jews of Turkey were little affected by the 1948 events in the Arab World, and thus no significant Jewish immigration emerged from Turkey due to persecution, but rather Zionist reasons. Even though historically speaking populist antisemitism was rarer in the Ottoman Empire and Anatolia than in Europe,[149] since the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948, there has been a rise in antisemitism. On the night of 6/7 September 1955, the Istanbul pogrom was unleashed. Although primarily aimed at the city's Greek population, the Jewish and Armenian communities of Istanbul were also targeted to a degree. The caused damage was mainly material - more than 4,000 shops and 1,000 houses belonging to Greeks, Armenians and Jews were destroyed - but it deeply shocked minorities throughout the country, and 10,000 Jews subsequently fled Turkey.[150] Table of Jewish population since 1948 In 1948, there were between 758,000 and 881,000 Jews (see table below) living in communities throughout the Arab world. Today, there are fewer than 8,600. In some Arab states, such as Libya, which was about 3% Jewish, the Jewish community no longer exists; in other Arab countries, only a few hundred Jews remain. Jewish Population by country: 1948, 1972, 2000 and recent times Country or territory 1948 Jewish population 1972 Jewish population Modern estimates Morocco 250,000[76]–265,000[77] 31,000[151] 2,500-2,700 (2006)[152] Algeria 140,000[76][77] 1,000[151] ~0 Tunisia 50,000[76]–105,000[77] 8,000[151] 900 - 1,000 (2008)[152] Libya 35,000[76]–38,000[77] 50[151] 0 Maghreb Total 475,000–548,000 40,050 3,400-3,700 Iraq 135,000[77]–140,000[76] 500[151] 5[153] Egypt 75,000[77]–80,000[76] 500[151] 100 (2006)[154] Yemen and Aden 53,000[76]–63,000[77] 500[151] 330[155]–350.[156] Syria 15,000[76]–30,000[77] 4,000[151] 100 (2006)[154] Lebanon 5,000[77]–20,000[157] 2,000[151] 20–40[128][129] Bahrain 550–600[158] 50[159] Sudan 350[141] ~0 Arab Countries Total 758,350–881,350 <4,500 Afghanistan 5,000 500[151] 1[160] Bangladesh Unknown 175-3,500[161] Iran 65,232 (1956)[147] 62,258 (1976)[147][162] - 80,000[151] 9,252 (2006)[163] - 10,800 (2006)[154] Pakistan 2,000, 2,500[164] 250[151] 200[161] Turkey 80,000[165] 30,000[151] 17,800 (2006)[154] Non-Arab Muslim Countries Total 202,000–282,500 110,750 32,100 Aftermath In Arab League countries While most Jews had left the Arab League by the wake of the 1973 October War, there were still sizable communities residing in Lebanon and Morocco, which however also continued to decrease over the years. A 2,000 strong Syrian Jewish community remained in Syria during Hafez al-Assad rule, but almost entirely left the country in the early 1990s, leaving for the United States. The remaining Jewish community of Lebanon was particularly hard hit by the civil war in Lebanon, and, by mid-1970s, the community collapsed. In the 1980s, Hezbollah kidnapped several Lebanese Jewish businessmen, and in the 2004 elections, only one Jew voted in the municipal elections. By the 1990s, there were only between 20 and 40 Jews living in Lebanon.[128][129] Following the Madrid Conference of 1991 the United States put pressure on the Syrian government to ease its restrictions on Jews, and on Passover in 1992, the government of Syria began granting exit visas to Jews on condition that they do not emigrate to Israel. At that time, the country had several thousand Jews. The majority of the Jewish community left for the United States, although some went to France and Turkey, and those who wanted to go to Israel were brought there in a two-year covert operation. There is a large and vibrant Syrian Jewish community in South Brooklyn, New York. In 2004, the Syrian government attempted to establish better relations with the emigrants, and a delegation of a dozen Jews of Syrian origin visited Syria in the spring of that year.[166] Exodus of Iranian Jews Prior to the Islamic revolution in 1979, some 80,000 Jews lived in Iran, primarily in the capital Teheran. Since the revolution, the Persian Jewish community has experienced a collapse, plunging to about one fourth of its size within three decades, and continues to shrink to this day.[citation needed] The current Jewish population of Iran is 8,756 according to the most recent Iranian census.[167][168][169] As a result of the 1979 Islamic Revolution, 60,000 of the 80,000 Jews in Iran fled, of whom 35,000 went to the United States, 25,000 went to Israel, and 5,000 went to Europe (mainly to the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland).[citation needed] About 15% of the Persian Jewish community in Israel were admitted between 1975 and 1991. At the time of the 1979 Islamic Revolution, 60,000 Jews were still living in Iran.[162] From then on, Jewish emigration from Iran dramatically increased, as about 30,000 Jews left within several months of the revolution alone.[148] Since the Revolution, Iran's Jewish population, some 30,000 Jews, have emigrated to the United States, Israel, and Europe (mainly to the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland).[170] In 1979, Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini met with the Jewish community upon his return from exile in Paris and issued a fatwa decreeing that the Jews were to be protected. Some sources put the Iranian Jewish population in the mid and late 1980s as between 50,000–60,000.[171] An estimate based on the 1986 census put the figure considerably higher for the same time, around 55,000.[172] In the 1990s there has been more uniformity in the figures, with most sources since then estimating roughly 25,000 Jews remaining in Iran.[173][174][175][176][177] The migration of Persian Jews after Iranian Revolution is mostly attributed to fear of religious persecution,[178][179] economic hardships and insecurity after the deposition of the Shah regime and consequent domestic violence and the Iran–Iraq War. While Iranian constitution generally respects minority rights of non-Muslims (though there are some forms of discrimination), the strong anti-Zionist policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran created a tense and uncomfortable situation for Iranian Jews, who became vulnerable for accusation on alleged collaboration with Israel. The United States State Department estimated the number of Jews in Iran at 20,000–25,000 as of 2009.[180] The 2012 census did put the figure of remaining Jewish community in Iran at about 9,000.[181] Dwindling of Jewish community in Turkey Since 1986, increased attacks on Jewish targets throughout Turkey impacted the security of the community, and urged many to emigrate. The Neve Shalom Synagogue in Istanbul has been attacked by Islamic militants three times.[182] First on 6 September 1986, Arab terrorists gunned down 22 Jewish worshippers and wounded 6 during Shabbat services at Neve Shalom. This attack was blamed on the Palestinian militant Abu Nidal.[183][184][185] In 1992, the Lebanon-based Shi'ite Muslim group of Hezbollah carried out a bomb against the Synagogue, but nobody was injured.[183][185] The Synagogue was hit again during the 2003 Istanbul bombings alongside the Beth Israel Synagogue, killing 20 and injuring over 300 people, both Jews and Muslims alike. Despite the increasing anti-Israeli[186] and anti-Jewish attitudes in modern Turkey, the country's Jewish community there is still believed to be the largest among Muslim countries, numbering about 23,000.[citation needed] Absorption Of the nearly 900,000 Jewish emigrants, approximately 680,000 emigrated to Israel and 235,000 to France; the remainder went to other countries in Europe as well as to the Americas.[187][188] About two thirds of the exodus was from the Maghreb region, of which Morocco's Jews went mostly to Israel, Algeria's Jews went mostly to France, and Tunisia's Jews departed for both countries.[189] Israel Main articles: Immigrant camps (Israel), Maabarot and Development Town Jewish refugees at Ma'abarot transit camp, 1950 Jewish children in front of Bet Lid camp. Israel, 1950 The majority of Jews in Arab countries eventually immigrated to the modern State of Israel.[190] Hundreds of thousands of Jewish refugees to Israel were temporarily settled in the numerous tent camps throughout the country. Those were later transformed into ma'abarot (transit camps), where tin dwellings were provided to house up to 220,000 residents. The ma'abarot existed until 1963. The population of transition camps was gradually absorbed and integrated into Israeli society. Many of the North African and Middle-Eastern Jews had a hard time adjusting to the new dominant culture, change of lifestyle and there were claims of discrimination.[citation needed] By 2003 they and their offspring, (including those of mixed lineage) comprised 3,136,436 people, or about 61% of Israel's Jewish population - see Israeli Jews#Jewish ethnic divisions in Israel. France France was also a major destination and about 50% (300,000 people) of modern French Jews have roots from North Africa. In total, it is estimated that between 1956 and 1967, about 235,000 North African Jews from Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco immigrated to France due to the decline of the French Empire and following the Six-Day War.[191] United States The United States was a destination of many Egyptian, Lebanese and Syrian Jews. Advocacy groups Advocacy groups acting on behalf of Jews from Arab countries include: World Organization of Jews from Arab Countries (WOJAC) seeks to secure rights and redress for Jews from Arab countries who suffered as a result of the Arab-Israeli conflict.[192][193] Justice for Jews from Arab Countries[194] JIMENA (Jews Indigenous to the Middle East and North Africa) publicizes the history and plight of the 850,000 Jews indigenous to the Middle East and North Africa who were forced to leave their homes and abandon their property, who were stripped of their citizenship[195][196] HARIF (UK Association of Jews from the Middle East and North Africa) promotes the history and heritage of Jews from the Arab and Muslim world[197] Historical Society of the Jews from Egypt[198] and International Association of Jews from Egypt[199] Babylonian Jewry Heritage Center[200] WOJAC, JJAC and JIMENA have been active in recent years in presenting their views to various governmental bodies in the US, Canada and UK,[201] amongst others, as well as appearing before the United Nations Human Rights Council.[202] |
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