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The Reformation in Ireland was a movement for the reform of religious life and institutions that was introduced into Ireland by the English administration at the behest of King Henry VIII of England. His desire for an annulment of his marriage was known as the King's Great Matter. Ultimately Pope Clement VII refused the petition; consequently it became necessary for the King to assert his lordship over the Roman Catholic Church in his realm to give legal effect to his wishes. The English Parliament confirmed the King's supremacy over the Church in the Kingdom of England. This challenge to Papal supremacy resulted in a breach with the Roman Catholic Church. By 1541, the Irish Parliament had agreed to the change in status of the country from that of a Lordship to that of Kingdom of Ireland. Unlike similar movements for religious reform on the continent of Europe, the various phases of the English Reformation as it developed in Ireland were largely driven by changes in government policy, to which public opinion in England gradually accommodated itself. However, a number of factors complicated the adoption of the religious innovations in Ireland; the majority of the population there adhered to the Roman Catholic Church. However in the city of Dublin the reformation took hold under the auspices of George Browne (Archbishop of Dublin). Italy Further information: Reformation in Italy Word of the Protestant reformers reached Italy in the 1520s, but never caught on. Its development was stopped by the Counter-Reformation, the Inquisition and also popular disinterest. Not only was the Church highly aggressive in seeking out heresy and suppressing it, but there was a shortage of Protestant leadership. No one translated the Bible into Italian; few tracts were written. No core of Protestantism emerged. The few preachers who did take an interest in "Lutheranism," as it was called in Italy, were suppressed or went into exile to northern countries where their message was well received. As a result the Reformation exerted almost no lasting influence in Italy, except for strengthening the Roman Catholic Church and motivating the Counter-Reformation.[37][38][39] Some Protestants left Italy and became outstanding activists of the European Reformation, mainly in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (e.g. Giorgio Biandrata, Bernardino Ochino, Giovanni Alciato, Giovanni Battista Cetis, Fausto Sozzini, Francesco Stancaro and Giovanni Valentino Gentile) who propagated Nontrinitarianism there and were chief instigators of the movement of Polish Brethren.[40] In 1532 the Waldensians adhered to the Reformation, adopting the Calvinist theology. The Church survived in the Western Alps through many persecutions and remains a Protestant church in Italy.[41] Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth Main article: Reformation in Poland In the first half of the 16th century, the enormous Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was a country of many creeds, but Roman Catholic Church remained the dominating religion. Reformation reached Poland in the 1520s, and quickly gained popularity among mostly German-speaking inhabitants of such major cities as Gdańsk, Toruń and Elbląg. In Koenigsberg, in 1530, Polish-language edition of Luther's Small Catechism was published. The Duchy of Prussia, which was a Polish fief, emerged as key center of the movement, with numerous publishing houses issuing not only Bibles, but also catechisms, in German, Polish and Lithuanian. Lutheranism gained popularity in northern part of the country, while Calvinism caught the interest of the nobility (known as szlachta), mainly in Lesser Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Several publishing houses were opened in Lesser Poland in mid-16th century in such locations as Słomniki and Raków. At that time, Mennonites and Czech Brothers came to Poland, with the latter settling mostly in Greater Poland around Leszno. In 1565, Polish Brethren appeared as yet another reformation movement. The 16th century Commonwealth was unique in Europe, because of widespread tolerance confirmed by the Warsaw Confederation. In 1563, the Brest Bible was published (see also Bible translations into Polish). The period of tolerance ended during the reign of King Sigismund III Vasa, who was under the strong influence of Piotr Skarga and other Jesuits. After the Deluge, and other wars of the mid-17th century in which all enemies of Poland were either Protestant or Orthodox Christians, the Poles' attitude changed. The Counter-Reformation prevailed: in 1658 the Polish Brethren were forced to leave the country, and in 1666, the Sejm banned apostasy from Catholicism to any other religion, under punishment of death. Finally, in 1717, the Silent Sejm banned non-Catholics from becoming deputies of the Parliament. Among most important Protestants of the Commonwealth, there are such names, as Mikołaj Rej, Marcin Czechowic, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski and Symon Budny. Slovene Lands A monument of Primož Trubar by Franc Berneker. White marble, 1910. The statue stands at the entrance to Tivoli Park, opposite the Museum of Modern Art, in Ljubljana. Primož Trubar is notable for consolidating the Slovene language and is considered to be the key figure of Slovenian cultural history and in many aspects a major Slovene historical personality.[42][43] He was the key figure of the Protestant Church of the Slovene Lands, as he was its founder and its first superintendent. In 1547 he was expelled from Ljubljana. While a Protestant preacher in Rothenburg, Germany, he wrote first two books in Slovene, Catechismus and Abecedarium, which were published in 1550 in Tübingen, Germany.[44] Since 2010, 8 June is commemorated in Slovenia as the Primož Trubar Day.[45] Jurij Dalmatin, another important Slovene Lutheran minister, writer and translator, is most notable for the complete translation of the Bible into Slovene, his most important achievement. He allegedly wrote it to a large extent at Turjak Castle under the protection of the Carniolan governor, Herbard VIII von Auersperg (Slovene: Hervard Turjaški), and Herbard's son Christoph von Auersperg, who are said to have provided for the translator Dalmatin a "Wartburg"-type sanctuary as had been offered to Martin Luther by Frederick the Wise, the Elector of Saxony. This account has been disputed as apocryphal[citation needed]. The original title of Damatin's 1584 Bible translation was Bibilija, tu je vse svetu pismu stariga inu noviga testamenta, slovenski tolmačena skuzi Jurija Dalmatina (The Bible: That Is, the Entire Holy Scripture of the Old and the New Testament, Translated into Slovene by Jurij Dalmatin). The translation set the norm for the Slovene standard language (with later innovations in vocabulary) until the first half of the 19th century. He was also the author of several religious books, such as the 1584 Karšanske lepe molitve (Beautiful Christian Prayers), the 1585 Ta kratki würtemberški katekizmus (The Short Württemberg Catechism, and Agenda published in 1589. Conclusion and legacy Thirty Years War: 1618-1648 External video Protestant branches.svg Introduction to the Reformation Setting the Stage Martin Luther Varieties of Protestantism The Counter-Reformation from Smarthistory at Khan Academy The Reformation led to a series of religious wars that culminated in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), which devastated much of Germany, killing between 25 and 40% of its population.[46] From 1618 to 1648 the Roman Catholic House of Habsburg and its allies fought against the Protestant princes of Germany, supported at various times by Denmark, Sweden and France. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the Crown of Bohemia, Hungary, Slovene Lands, the Spanish Netherlands and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Roman Catholic Church. Some historians believe that the era of the Reformation came to a close when Roman Catholic France allied itself, first in secret and later on the battlefields, with Protestant states against the Habsburg dynasty.[47] For the first time since the days of Luther, political and national convictions again outweighed religious convictions in Europe. The main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War, were: All parties would now recognise the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of cuius regio, eius religio)[48] Christians living in principalities where their denomination was not the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.[48] The treaty also effectively ended the papacy's pan-European political power. Furious,[49] Pope Innocent X declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times"[50] in his bull Zelo Domus Dei.[49] European sovereigns, Roman Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.[50][49] End of the Reformation However, this treaty did not mean that the Reformation concluded. It would be about another century (ca. 1750) before the Reformation could truly be considered to have ended. Meanwhile, other reform movements continued to spring up, even within the Reformation churches. One such movement was Pietism, which impacted the Low Countries (hence the Reformed churches), Germany (hence also Lutheranism), and Great Britain, which led to a split in Lutheranism and which brought about the creation of some new churches (most notably Methodism). In turn, Pietism would branch out into a "normative" form and Radical Pietism. Impact on individual lives The Reformation had a wide-ranging influence on personal life. In fashion, for instance, it led to a more sober and dignified, less wasteful esthetic.[51][page needed] Further impact on the Reformation came from the Age of Enlightenment, and its preponderance of Rationalism. In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,[52] Max Weber first suggested that cultural values could affect economic success, arguing that the Protestant Reformation led to values that drove people toward worldly achievements, a hard work ethic,[53] and saving to accumulate wealth for investment.[54] The new religions (in particular, Calvinism and other more austere Protestant groups) effectively forbade wastefully using hard earned money and identified the purchase of luxuries a sin.[55][better source needed] Historiography Jacob argues that there has been a dramatic shift in the historiography of the Reformation. Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the great leaders and theologians of the sixteenth century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. Their ideas were studied in depth. However, the rise of the new social history in the 1960s look at history from the bottom up, not from the top down. Historians began to concentrate on the values, beliefs and behavior of the people at large. She finds, "in contemporary scholarship, the Reformation is now seen as a vast cultural upheaval, a social and popular movement, textured and rich because of its diversity."[56] |
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