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The modern academic system of academic degrees evolved and expanded in the medieval university, spreading everywhere across the globe as the institution did: "No other European institution has spread over the entire world in the way in which the traditional form of the European university has done. The degrees awarded by European universities – the bachelor's degree, the licentiate, the master degree, and the doctorate – have been adopted in the most diverse societies throughout the world."[1] Meeting of doctors at the University of Paris. From a medieval manuscript. Emergence of the doctor's and master's degrees and the licentiate[edit] The doctorate (Latin: doceo, I teach) appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach (Latin: licentia docendi) at a medieval university.[2] Its roots can be traced to the early church when the term "doctor" referred to the Apostles, church fathers and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible.[2] The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the church which required the applicant to pass a test, to take oath of allegiance and pay a fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access – now largely free of charge – of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic.[3] This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the Pope to the University of Paris in 1231 where it became a universal license to teach (licentia ubique docendi).[3] However, while the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree (Baccalaureus), it was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the Magister and doctorate, both of which now became the exclusive qualification for teaching.[3] At the university, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild.[4] The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Master of Arts", seven years, was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous,[5] but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master degree. Today the terms "master", "doctor" (from the Latin - meaning literally: "teacher") and "professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in the Medieval university they were equivalent terms, the use of them in the degree name being a matter of custom at a university. (Most universities conferred the Master of Arts, although the highest degree was often termed Master of Theology/Divinity or Doctor of Theology/Divinity depending on the place). The earliest doctoral degrees (theology - Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.), philosophy - Doctor of philosophy (D.Phil., Ph.D.) and medicine - Medicinæ Doctor (M.D., D.M.)) reflected the historical separation of all University study into these three fields. Over time, the D.D. has gradually become less common outside theology, and is now mostly used for honorary degrees, with the title "Doctor of Theology" being used more often for earned degrees. Studies outside theology and medicine were then called "philosophy", due to the Renaissance conviction that real knowledge could be derived from empirical observation, and this usage survives in the degree title of Doctor of Philosophy. Studies in these fields have become much more common, but are now classified as sciences and humanities. The University of Bologna in Italy, regarded as the oldest university in Europe, was the second institution to confer the degree of Doctor in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including medicine.[6] The University of Paris used the term "master" for its graduates, a practice adopted by the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge, as well as the ancient Scottish universities of St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh. Emergence of the bachelor's degree[edit] In the medieval European universities, candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic), and the quadrivium (mathematics, geometry, astronomy and music), together known as the Liberal Arts, and who had successfully passed examinations held by their master, would be admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Arts, from the Latin baccalaureus, a term previously used of a squire (i.e., apprentice) to a knight. Further study, and in particular successful participation in and then moderating of disputations would earn one the Master of Arts degree, from the Latin magister, teacher, entitling one to teach these subjects. Master of Arts were eligible to enter study under the "higher faculties" of Law, Medicine or Theology, and earn first a bachelor's and then master or doctor's degrees in these subjects. Thus a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified master – hence the English word "graduate", which is based on the Latin gradus ("step"). The evolution of the terminology of degrees[edit] The naming of degrees eventually became linked with the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of arts or grammar became known as "master", but those in theology, medicine, and law were known as "doctor". As study in the arts or in grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the master degree. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), which in its present form as a degree based on research and dissertation is a development from 18th- and 19th-century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts (M.A.). The practice of using the term doctor for PhDs developed within German universities and spread across the academic world. The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The baccalauréat (cf. "bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have successfully completed their secondary education and admits the student to university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded licence, much as the medieval teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies. Spain had a similar structure: the term "Bachiller" was used for those who finished the secondary or high-school level education, known as "Bachillerato". The standard Spanish university 5-years degree was "Licenciado", (although there were a few 3-years associate degrees called "diplomaturas", from where the "diplomados" could move to study a related licenciatura). The highest level was "Doctor". Degrees awarded by institutions other than universities[edit] In the past, degrees have also been directly issued by authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In Great Britain, Lambeth Degrees are still awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury.[7] The Archbishop of Canterbury's right to grant degrees is derived from Peter's Pence Act of 1533 which empowered the Archbishop to grant dispensations previously granted by the Pope.[8] Academic dress[edit] Main article: Academic dress In most countries, gaining an academic degree entitles the holder to assume distinctive academic dress particular to the awarding institution, identifying the status of the individual wearing them. Current levels of attainment of degrees[edit] Traditionally more men than women attended and earned degrees at the world's universities. A milestone was reached in the United States according to results of the 2010 census, as women surpassed men in attaining master degrees, for the first time.[9] The U.S. census reports that 10.5 million men have master's degrees or higher, compared with 10.6 million women. The first year that women surpassed men in earning bachelor’s degrees was in 1996.[10] Indicating earned degrees[edit] There are various conventions for indicating degrees and diplomas after one's name. In some cultures it is usual to give only the highest degree. In others, it is usual to give the full sequence, in some cases giving abbreviations also for the discipline, the institution, and (where it applies) the level of honours. In another variation, a 'rule of subsumption' often shortens the list and may obscure the chronology evident from a full listing. Thus 'MSc BSc' means that the degrees conferred were - in chronological order - BSc, MSc. The subsumption rule reflects the principle that a person of a given high status does not separately belong to the lower status. For member institutions of the Association of Commonwealth Universities, there is a standard list of abbreviations, but in practice many variations are used. Most notable is the use of the Latin abbreviations 'Oxon.' and 'Cantab.' for the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, in spite of these having been superseded by (little used) English 'Oxf.' and 'Camb.' Other Latin abbreviations include St And. for the University of St Andrews, Exon. for the University of Exeter, Dunelm. for Durham University, Ebor. for the University of York, Cantuar. for the University of Kent (formerly the "University of Kent at Canterbury") and N'cle for University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Confusion results from the widespread use of 'SA' for the University of South Australia (instead of S.Aust.) because 'SA' was officially assigned to the University of South Africa. For universities of different commonwealth countries sharing the same name, such as York University in Canada and the University of York in the UK, a convention has been adopted where a country abbreviation is included with the letters and university name. In this example, 'York (Can.)' and 'York (UK)' is commonly used to denote degrees conferred by their respective universities. The doubling of letters in LL.B., LL.M., LL.D. is because these degrees are in laws, not law. The doubled letter indicates the Latin plural (genitive case) legum as opposed to the singular (genitive case) legis. Abbreviations for the degrees in surgery Ch. B. and Ch. M. are from Latin chiruguriae and often indicate a university system patterned after Scottish models. The combination of M.B. with Ch. B. arose from a need to graduate the students at the time of year allocated to graduation rituals, but the legal inability to confer the M.B. before they had been properly approved by professional regulatory bodies. Thus the Ch. B. was conferred first, and the M.B. was conferred later, after registration, and without ceremony. In recent times the two have come to be conferred together and are widely (mis)understood to constitute a single degree. Some degrees are awarded jure dignitatis. That is, a person who has demonstrated the appropriate qualities to be given a particular office may be awarded the degree by virtue of the office held. It is another kind of earned—but not generally strictly academic—degree. An exception occurs when a doctorate is conferred based on both the office and a completed dissertation. In such circumstances the degree is awarded "dissertation et jure dignitatis". Online degree[edit] Main article: Online degree An online degree is an academic degree (usually a college degree, but sometimes the term includes high school diplomas and non-degree certificate programs) that can be earned primarily or entirely through the use of an Internet-connected computer, rather than attending college in a traditional campus setting. Improvements in technology, the increasing use of the Internet worldwide, and the need for people to have flexible school schedules that enable them to work while attending school have led to a proliferation of online colleges that award associate's, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees.[11] Degree systems by regions[edit] Asia[edit] India & Pakistan[edit] India and Pakistan mostly follow the colonial era British system for classification of degrees. Arts referring to the performing arts and literature the corresponding degree are Bachelor of Arts (BA) and its master is called Master of Arts (MA). Management degrees are also classified under 'Arts' but is nowadays considered a major new stream, Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Master Of Business Administration (MBA). Science referring to the basic sciences and natural science (Biology, Physics, Chemistry etc.) the corresponding degree are Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) and its master is called Master of Science (M.Sc.). Another new set of Information Technology degree conferred specially in the field of computer science, Bachelor of Science in Information Technology (B.Sc.IT.) and Master of Science in Information Technology (M.Sc.IT.). The engineering degrees in India follow two common patterns. Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) and Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech) both representing a bachelors degree in engineering and Pakistan Engineering Degrees are Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) and B.Sc. Engineering both are same in curriculum, duration and pattern. where as B. Tech. Degree holders in Pakistan are not considered as Engineers as per Pakistan Engineering Council criteria for engineers they are considered as technologist in Pakistan. Medical Degree - Bachelor of Medicine & Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS), Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS),(BCA)-Bachelor of Computer Application and (MCA)-Master of Computer Application. Iran[edit] University's degrees are: • Pre-Bachelor's degree: called "kārdānī". • Bachelor's degree: called "kāršenāsī" • Master's degree: called " kāršenāsī-ye aršad" • Ph.D.: called "doktor". And Theology's degrees defined by "howze-ye elmīye" are: • Pre-Bachelor's degree: called "talabe" • Bachelor's degree: called "talabe" • Master's degree: called " talabe" • Ph.D.: called "talabe" • Prof.: called "talabe" In howze-ye elmiye there no deffernece, "talabe" means student. Sri Lanka[edit] Sri Lanka as many other commonwealth countries follow the British system with its own distinctions. Degrees are approved by the University Grants Commission. Africa[edit] Tunisia[edit] Grading in Tunisia is done on a scale of 0-20. The passing grade is 10 out of 20 which is 50% of the complete mark; 20. This grading system is used from middle-school up to university level. A PhD thesis is even graded out of 20. To get ahead on the academic ladder, one is strictly assessed numerically. That is; if you are a BA holder applying for an MA program you will be admitted according to how high your grades were during your undergraduate years. Europe[edit] Main articles: Bologna process and European Higher Education Area Since the Lisbon Recognition Convention elaborated by the UNESCO and the Council of Europe,[12] degrees in Europe are being harmonised through the Bologna process, based on the three-level hierarchy of degrees: Bachelor (Licence in France, Poland, Portugal and Romania), Master and Doctor. This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system in use in some countries. The Bologna Process currently has 47 participating countries.[13] Although a country is a Bologna Process member state, this does not necessarily mean that the Bologna Accords have been implemented yet in that country.[14] Status Implementation Bologna Accords Implemented Austria Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Czech Republic Denmark Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Italy Republic of Macedonia Moldova Montenegro the Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom Not Implemented Russia Turkey Austria[edit] In Austria, there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees: the traditional two-cycle system of Magister/Diplom followed by the Doctorate, and the three-cycle system of Bachelor, Master and Doctorate as defined by the Bologna process. With a few exceptions, the two-cycle degree system will be phased out by 2010.[15] Some of the established degree naming has, however, been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master programmes. Czech Republic[edit] The qualification structure recognises Bachelor's, Master's, and doctoral levels as defined by the Bologna process. A Bachelor's degree programme aims at providing qualifications for entering a profession or a Master's degree programme. It takes from 3 to 4 years. Graduates receive the academic title BcA. (Bachelor of Fine Arts, Bakalář umění) in field of arts and Bc. (Bachelor, Bakalář) in other fields. The degree programme must be completed in due form with a final state examination, which usually includes the presentation and defence of a Bachelor's thesis. Abbreviations are written before the name. A Master's degree programme follows a Bachelor's degree programme. The length is 1 to 3 years. In selected fields, where the nature of the degree programme so requires, a Master's degree programme need not to follow on from a Bachelor's programme. In this case, the programme lasts 4 to 6 years (i.e. law - 5, medicine - 6). Graduates in a Master's degree programme must take a final state examination and publicly present and defend a Master's thesis. Studies in the fields of medicine, veterinary medicine and hygiene are completed by passing an advanced Master's ("rigorous") state examination including the presentation and defence of an advanced Master's ("rigorous") thesis. The studies in a Master's programme lead to the following academic degrees: Ing. - Engineer (Inženýr) in the area of economics, technical sciences and technologies, agriculture and forestry and in military fields of study Ing. arch. - Engineer Architect (inženýr architekt) in the field of architecture MUDr. - Doctor of Medicine (doktor medicíny) in the field of medicine MDDr. - Doctor of Dental Medicine (doktor zubního lékařství) in the field of dental science (since 2004) MVDr. - Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (doktor veterinární medicíny) in the field of veterinary medicine and hygiene MgA. - Master of Fine Arts (magistr umění) in the field of fine arts Mgr. - Master (magistr) in other areas of study Holders of the academic degree magistr are entitled to take an advanced Master's ("rigorous") state examination in the same area of study and defend an advanced Master's ("rigorous") thesis. If completed successfully, the following academic degrees are awarded: JUDr. - Doctor of Laws (doktor práv) in the field of law PhDr. - Doctor of Philosophy (doktor filosofie) in the area of the humanities, teacher education and social sciences RNDr. - Doctor of Natural Sciences (doktor přírodních věd) in the field of natural sciences PharmDr. - Doctor of Pharmacy (doktor farmacie) in the field of pharmacy ThLic. - Licentiate of Theology (licenciát teologie) in the field of Catholic theology ThLic. - Licentiate of Theology or ThDr. - Doctor of Theology (doktor teologie) in the field of non-Catholic theology All above mentioned academic titles are at Master's level and their abbreviations are written in front of the name. The standard length of a doctoral degree programme is either 3 or 4 years. Doctoral studies are completed by the state doctoral thesis (dissertation), based on original results, which must be published. Graduates of a doctoral degree programme are awarded the academic degree of: Ph.D. - Doctor (doktor) Th.D. - Doctor of Theology (doktor teologie) in the field of theology The abbreviations of these academic titles are written after the name.[16] Denmark[edit] See also: Bologna process Before the adaptation to international standards, the lowest degree that would normally be studied at universities in Denmark was equivalent to a Master's degree (Kandidat/cand.mag). Denmark has two forms of Master's Degrees; candidate and master. Officially, Bachelor degrees have always been obtained after 3 years' university studies. Various medium-length (2–4 years) professional degrees have been adapted so they now have status as professional bachelor degrees of varying length, and opposed to academic bachelor degrees they are considered to be "applied" degrees. The degrees available are: pb. (professional bachelor's degree = 2-3½ years), b. (bachelor's = 3-3½ years), cand. (candidate = 5-5½ years), M (master's = any of the former degrees plus 2 years), Ph.D (professional experience required plus minimum ½ year of lectures and minimum 2–3 years of studying for a dissertation no less than 200 pages). .[17] Finland[edit] Historically, the Finnish higher education system has been similar to the German system, which includes Universities and Universities of Applied Sciences (UAS). With the exception of few fields, Universities are in compliance with the Bologna process, thus awarding Bachelor's (kandidaatti), Master's (maisteri) and Doctoral degrees (tohtori). The traditional degree of Licenciate is subject to being phased out in the near future. The Universities of Applied sciences have the right to award only Bachelor's and Master's degrees, although they do not have the right to use the titles kandidaatti or maisteri in Finnish. While nearly all university students are granted the right to study a Master's degree, UAS students have to apply to a Master's programme separately. The overwhelming majority of all Master's degree holders have a University background. In spite of the fact that the degrees awarded by the two institutions are at par by law, the UAS degrees are not directly comparable to nor similar in content as the university degrees. In popular culture, degrees awarded by Universities of Applied Sciences are not traditionally held as academic degrees (yliopistotutkinto) but as higher education degrees (korkeakoulututkinto). This is reflected by the fact most Master's degree holders from Universities of Applied Sciences have to complete additional studies in order to apply to doctoral programmes at Universities. France[edit] Degree Diploma Doctorate Doctorate's Diploma Master Universities Écoles supérieures General Medical and Paramedical Accounting Art Business Engineering Military Public Affairs Veterinary Science Master's Diploma diplôme d'études approfondies diplôme d'études supérieures spécialisées (both diplomas phased out and no longer delivered) diplôme de formation approfondie (Medicine, Midwifery, Odontology, Pharmacy) diplôme supérieur de comptabilité et de gestion[18] Architect State Diploma[19] diplôme national supérieur d'arts plastiques[20] Diploma of the École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs[21] diplôme national supérieur d'expression plastique[22] Diplomas of the conservatoire national supérieur de musique et de danse de Paris[23] Diplomas of the université Paris-Dauphine[24] Diplomas of some Business Schools[25] Engineer's degree diplôme de management et contrôle du trafic aérien and diplôme d’ingénierie des systèmes électroniques de la sécurité aérienne of the école nationale de l'aviation civile[26] Diploma of the école spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr[27] Diploma of a Institut d'études politiques diplôme d’études fondamentales vétérinaires[28] Licence Licenciate's Diploma diplôme de formation générale (Medicine, Midwifery, Odontology, Pharmacy)[29] Nurse State Diploma Ergotherapist State Diploma[30] diplôme de comptabilité et de gestion[31] diplôme d’études en architecture[32] Diploma of the école militaire interarmes[33] Baccalaureate Bachelor's Diploma The French education system operates on a sharp distinction between diplomas and degrees. Diplomas (diplômes) are awarded by the educational institutions, such as the universities or the grandes écoles, but degrees (grades universities) are only awarded by the Ministry of Education. Historically, academic degrees were orientated towards research and the vocational education system awarded only diplomas. Since the implementation of the Bologna Process in France, things are going towards a simplification : schools continue to deliver their own diplomas, but the State recognition and degree awarding is far more ranged than before. Nonetheless, there are many diplomas in France with no degree recognition. These are either two-years or four-years diplomas (diplôme universitaire de technologie or DUT Associate of Applied Science, brevet de technician supérieur or BTS Associate of Technology, maîtrise) wich do not fall into the frame of the European Higher Education Area or specific diplomas designed by various institutions with no recognition from the Ministry of Education, such as the mastère spécialisé[34] or the Sciences Po Bachelor. Germany[edit] Traditionally in Germany, students graduated after four to six years either with a Magister Artium (abbreviated M.A.) degree in Social Sciences, Humanities, Linguistics and the Arts or with a Diplom degree in Natural Sciences, Economics, Business Administration, Political Science, Sociology, Theology and Engineering. Those degrees were the first and at the same time highest non-PhD/Doctorate-title in many disciplines before its gradual replacement by other, Anglo-Saxon-inspired degrees. In Germany, a Magister or Diplom awarded by universities, which both require a final thesis, is popularly considered equivalent to a master's degree from countries following an Anglo-American model. However, degree equivalencies are highly contentious, and this is not the general opinion outside Germany. For example, these traditional German first degrees are regarded by the University of California, the top-ranked public university system in the United States, as equivalent to an American bachelor's degree for purposes of graduate school admission[citation needed]. A special kind of examination is the Staatsexamen. It is not an academic degree but a government licensing examination that future doctors, dentists, teachers, lawyers (solicitors), judges, public prosecutors, patent attorneys, and pharmacists have to pass in order to be eligible to work in their profession. Students usually study at university for 4–6 years before they take the first Staatsexamen. Afterwards teachers and jurists go through a form of pupillage for two years, before they are able to take the second Staatsexamen, which tests their practical abilities in their jobs. The first Staatsexamen is at a level which is equivalent to a M.Sc. or M.A. Since 1999, the traditional degrees are gradually being replaced by Bachelor's (Bakkalaureus) and Master's (Master) degrees (see Bologna process). The main reasons for this change are to make degrees internationally comparable, and to introduce degrees to the German system which take less time to complete (German students typically take five years or more to earn a Magister or Diplom). Some universities are still resistant to this change, considering it a displacement of a venerable tradition for the pure sake of globalization. Universities must fulfill the new standard by the end of 2007. In the future, the Diplom or Magister degree will no longer be awarded. Doctorates are issued under a variety of names, depending on the faculty: e.g., Doktor der Naturwissenschaften (Doctor of Natural Science); Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Doctor of Law); Doktor der Medizin (Doctor of Medicine); Doktor der Philosophie (Doctor of Philosophy), to name just a few. Multiple doctorates and honorary doctorates are often listed and even used in forms of address in German-speaking countries. A Diplom (from a Universität), Magister, Master's or Staatsexamen student can proceed to a doctorate. The doctoral promotion (e.g. to Dr.rer. nat., Dr.phil. and others) is the highest academic degree in Germany and generally equivalent to a Bologna Ph.D. degree. (The American Ph.D., for example, may be in some cases of higher standard, closer to the Habilitation (see below). However, this may apply to the comparison of UK and US Ph.D. degrees, too.) The degree Dr.med. for medical doctors has to be viewed differently, however; medical students usually write their doctoral theses right after they have completed studies, without any previous conducted scientific research, just as students in other disciplines write a Diplom, Magister or Master's thesis. Sometimes incorrectly regarded as a degree, the Habilitation is an academic qualification in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland that allows further teaching and research endorsement after a doctorate. It is earned by writing a second thesis (the Habilitationsschrift) or presenting a portfolio of first-author publications in an advanced topic. The exact requirements for satisfying a Habilitation depend on individual universities. The "habil.", as it is abbreviated to represent that a habilitation has been awarded after the doctorate, was traditionally the conventional qualification for serving at least as a Privatdozent (e.g. "PD Dr. habil.") (Lecturer) in an academic professorship (now called W2 and W3). Some German universities no longer require the Habilitation, although preference may still be given to applicants who have this credential, for academic posts in the more traditional fields. Ireland[edit] Ireland operates under a National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ). The school leaving qualification attained by students is called the Leaving Certificate. It is considered Level 4-5 on the framework. This qualification is the traditional route of entry into third level education. There are also Level 5 qualifications in certain vocational subjects (e.g. Level 5 Certificate in Restaurant Operations)awarded by the Further Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC). Advanced Certificates at level 6 are also awarded by FETAC. The Higher Education and Training Awards Council (HETAC) award the following: A Higher Certificate at Level 6; An Ordinary Bachelor Degree at Level 7; A Honours Bachelor Degree or Higher Diploma at Level 8; A Master's Degree or Postgraduate Diploma at Level 9; A Doctoral Degree or Higher Doctorate at level 10.[35] These are completed in Institutes of Technology or Universities. Italy[edit] In Italy access to university is possible after gaining the Diploma di Maturità at 19 years of age, following 5 years of study in a specific high school focused on certain subjects (e.g. liceo classico focused on classical subjects, including ancient Greek and Latin; liceo scientifico focused on scientific subjects such as Maths, Chemistry and Physics but also including ancient Latin and Italian Literature; liceo linguistico focused on Foreign Languages and Literature; istituto tecnico focused on practical and theoretical subjects such as Mechanics, Electronics and Economy). After gaining the diploma one can enter university and enrol in any curriculum (e.g. physics, medicine, chemistry, engineering, architecture): all high school diplomas allow access to any university curriculum, although most universities have pre-admission tests. Italy uses the three levels degree system. The first level degree, called (Diploma Accademico di) laurea (Bachelor's degree), is obtained after 3 years of study and a short thesis on a specific subject. The second level degree, called (Diploma Accademico di) laurea magistrale (Masters degree), is obtained after two additional years of study, specializing in a particular branch of the chosen subject (e.g. particle physics, nuclear engineering, etc.). This degree requires a more complex thesis work, usually involving some academic research or an internship in a private company. The third level, after a further 3 years of study, is the Dottorato di ricerca (equivalent to a Doctorate of Philosophy). This degree is mainly devoted to research, with a final thesis on the results of the research undertaken. Alternatively, after obtaining the laurea triennale or the laurea magistrale one can attend a "Master" (first-level Master after the laurea triennale; second-level Master after the laurea magistrale) of one or two years, offered by universities and private organisations with a variety of subjects, lengths and costs and usually including a final internship in a private company. The title for Laureati is, regardless of the field of study, Dottore/Dottoressa (abbrev. Dott./Dott.ssa, meaning Doctor) or Dottore/ Dottoressa Magistrale, not to be confused with the title for the PhD level graduate, which is Dottore/ Dottoressa di Ricerca. Netherlands[edit] See also: Education in the Netherlands In the Netherlands, the structure of academic studies was altered significantly in 1982. In this year the "Tweefasenstructuur" (Two Phase Structure) was introduced by the Dutch Minister of Education, Wim Deetman. With this two phase structure an attempt was made to standardise all the different studies and structure them to an identical timetable. Additional effect was that students would be persuaded stringently to produce results within a preset time-frame, or otherwise discontinue their studies. The two phase structure has been adapted to a bachelor-master structure as a result of the Bologna process. Admission[edit] In order for a Dutch student to get access to a university education, he/she has to complete a six-year pre-university secondary education called "voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs" (vwo). There are other routes possible, but only if the end level of the applicant is comparable to the two levels is access to university education is granted. For some studies, specific end levels or disciplines are required, e.g., graduating without physics, biology, and chemistry will make it impossible to study medicine. People 21 years old or older who do not have the required entrance diplomas may opt for an entrance exam for being admitted to a higher education curriculum. In this exam, they have to prove their command of disciplines considered necessary for pursuing such study. After September 1, 2002 they would be thus admitted to a Bachelor's curriculum, not to a Master's curriculum. For some studies[36][37] in the Netherlands, a governmental determined limited access is in place (although under political review for abolishment, February 2011).[38] This is a limitation of the number of applicants to a specific study, thus trying to control the eventual number of graduates. The most renowned studies for their numerus clausus are medicine and dentistry. Every year a combination of the highest pre-university graduation grades and some additional conditions determine who can start such a numerus clausus study and who can not. Almost all Dutch universities are government supported universities, with only very few privately owned universities in existence (i.e. one in business, and all others in theology). Leiden University is the oldest, founded in 1575. Pre-Bologna phases[edit] Before the introduction of the bachelor-master structure, almost all academic studies in the Netherlands had the same length of four years and had two phases: The "propedeutische fase" (1–2 years): After finishing this phase a student can follow another two years' study, which grants equivalents to the Anglo-Saxon BSc (Bachelor of Science), BA (Bachelor of Arts) or LLB (Bachelor of Laws). The "doctorale fase" (3–4 years): Completing the first phase successfully gives the student access to the second phase. Again, failure to finish within the time given will lead to discontinuation. This phase is concluded with the "doctoraal examen" (doctoral exam). This is not similar to any type of doctoral exam that would grant the student with any type of PhD title. Successful completion however does grant the student the Dutch degree of "drs." "doctorandus", ir. ("ingenieur" – engineer) or "mr." ("Meester in de rechten" - master of law). Nowadays these Dutch titles have been largely replaced by the Anglo Saxon titles MSc (Master of Science), MA (Master of Arts), and LLM (Master of Laws), depending on the area of study. For medical students the "doctorandus" degree is not equivalent to the European Anglo Saxon postgraduate research degree in medicine of MD (Medical Doctor). Besides the title doctorandus, the graduates of the Curius curriculum may also bear the title arts (physician). The doctorandus in medicine title is granted after four years (nominal time) of the Curius curriculum, while the title physician is granted after six years (nominal time) of that curriculum. The Dutch physician title is equal to a MSc degree according to the Bologna process, and can be compared with the MBBS, MB, MB BCh BAO, BMBS, MBBChir, or MBChBa in the UK degree system, and the North American, but not the UK MD degree, which is a research degree. One-on-one equivalence or interchangeability of the Dutch medical title and MD is often suggested. However, officially the MD title is not known, nor legal to use in the Netherlands. The correct notation for a Dutch physician who completed his or her medical studies, but did not pursue a doctor (PhD-like) study is "drs." (e.g. drs. Jansen, arts) and not "dr." in medicine, as often used incorrectly. However, like in the United Kingdom, physicians holding these degrees are referred to as 'Doctor' by courtesy. In the Netherlands, there is the informal title dokter for physicians, but not doctor (dr.), unless they also earn such degree by completing a PhD curriculum. Furthermore, the "doctorandus" degree does not give a medical student the right to treat patients; for this a minimum of two years additional study (internships) is required. After obtaining a Medical Board registration, Dutch physicians must work an additional two to six years in a field of expertise to become a registered medical specialist. Dutch surgeons commonly are only granted access to surgeon training and positions after obtaining a doctorate (PhD) successfully. Since a couple of years, the six-year (nominal time) old Curius curriculum (which offered the titles doctorandus and physician) has been replaced with a three-year (nominal time) Bachelor Curius+ followed by a three-year (nominal time) Master Curius+. Those who had already begun their old-style Curius curriculum before that will still have to complete it as a six-year study (nominal time). A doctorandus in law uses the title "meester" (master, abbreviated as mr. Jansen) instead of drs., and some studies like for example technique and agriculture grant the title "ingenieur" (engineer, noted as ir. Jansen) instead of drs. These titles as equivalent to a LLM (the title mr.) and to a MSc (the title ir.), and if got before September 1, 2002 from a recognized Dutch university, may be rendered as M (from Master) behind one's name, instead of using the typical Dutch shortcuts before one's name. Since September 1, 2002, Dutch universities offer specific BSc, BA or LLB studies followed by MSc, MA or LLM studies, thus integrating into and merging with the international scientific community, offering lectures, other classes, seminars, or complete curricula in English instead of Dutch. According to their field of study, MSc graduates may use either ir. or drs. before their names, MA graduates may use drs. before their name and LLM graduates may use mr. before their names, but only if they received such degrees from recognized Dutch universities. Not uncommonly, the Dutch "drs." abbreviation can cause much confusion in other countries, since it is perceived as a person who has a PhD in multiple disciplines. In the Netherlands, the degree MPhil is not legally recognised. After successfully obtaining a "drs.", "ir.", or "mr." degree, a student has the opportunity to follow a promotion study (informally called PhD) to eventually obtain a doctorate, and subsequently the title "doctor". Promotion studies are structured ideally according to a preset time schedule of 4 to 6 years, during which the student has to be mentored by at least one professor. The promotion study has to be concluded with at least a scientific thesis, which has to be defended to "a gathering of his/her peers", in practice the Board of the Faculty with guest professors from other faculties and/or universities added. More and more common, and in some disciplines even mandatory, is that the student writes and submits scientific publications to peer-reviewed journals, which eventually need to be accepted for publication. The number of publications is often debated and varies considerably between the various disciplines. However, in all disciplines the student is obligated to produce and publish a dissertation or thesis in book form. Bachelor/master structure[edit] All current Dutch academic education programs are offered in the Anglo-Saxon bachelor/master structure. It takes three years to earn a bachelors degree and another one or two years to earn a masters degree. There are three official academic bachelor titles (BA, BSc, and LLB) and three official master titles (MA, MSc, and LLM). These academic titles are protected by the Dutch government. Academic title bearing[edit] After obtaining a doctorate, Dutch doctors may bear either the title dr. (lower case) before, or the letter D behind their name, but not both simultaneously.[39] There is no specific notation of the discipline in which the doctorate is obtained. Stacking of the titles as seen in countries like for example Germany (Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. Gruber) is highly uncommon in the Netherlands and not well received culturally. Those who have multiple doctor titles may, but in practice seldom use dr.mult. before their name.[39] The honoris cause doctors may use dr.h.c. before their name.[39] Combining different Dutch titles, especially in different disciplines, is allowed however (e.g. mr. dr. Jansen, dr. mr. Jansen, dr. ir. Jansen, mr. ir. drs. Jansen, mr. ir. Jansen). The use of the combination ir. ing. is frequent, indicating one holds a HBO, vocational (or professional) engineering degree together with an academic engineering degree.[40] What is not allowed is, after obtaining a doctorate, using dr. drs. Jansen; dr. Jansen should be used instead. A combination of a Dutch title with an international title is not allowed, except for some limited number of international professional titles.[40] Thus, one should choose either one's classical Dutch titles, or use the shortcut provided by the law behind one's name (since September 1, 2002 it is the other way around: those who hold Dutch degrees as MSc, LLM or MA may optionally use the old-style shortcuts before their names).[40][41] Hence, formal use of the Anglo-Saxon PhD behind ones name is not legal, as it is not a Dutch degree, but often seen on for example English publications for clarity towards international readers; the law provides the option of using the shortcut D behind one's name instead of dr. before one's name. "Doctors" (dr.) can proceed to teach at universities as "universitair docent" (UD – assistant professor). With time, experience, and/ or achievement, this can evolve to a position as "universitair hoofddocent" (UHD – associate professor). Officially an UHD still works under the supervision of a "hoogleraar", the head of the department and commonly a professor. However, this is not a given; it is also possible that a department is headed by a "plain" doctor, based on knowledge, achievement, and expertise. The position of "hoogleraar" is the highest possible scientific position at a university, and equivalent to the US "full" professor. The Dutch professor's title, noted as prof. Jansen or professor Jansen, is connected to ones employment. This means that, should the professor leave the university, he or she also loses the privilege to use the title of professor. Exception here are retired professors, who can still note the title in front of their name, or use the title emeritus professor (em. prof.). People who switch to a non-university job lose their professor title, and are only allowed to use the "dr." abbreviation. Contrary to some other European countries like for example Germany, Dutch academic titles are used rarely outside academia, hold no value in every day life, and are for example not listed on official documentation (e.g. passport, drivers license, (governmental) communication). Dutch academic titles however are legally protected and can only be used by graduates from Dutch institutions of higher education. Illegal use is considered a misdemeanor and subject to legal prosecution.[42][43] Holders of foreign degrees therefore need special permission before being able to use a recognised Dutch title, but they are free to use their own foreign title (untranslated).[44][45][46][47] In practice, the Public Department does not prosecute the illegal use of a protected title (in the Netherlands applies the principle of opportunity, so some known crimes are not prosecuted).[48] Norway[edit] Prior to 2003, there were around 50 different degrees and corresponding education programs within the Norwegian higher education system. In 2003, a reform was instituted to replace this older system with an "international system." For example, many degrees had titles that included the Latin term candidatus/candidata. The second part of the title usually consisted of a Latin word corresponding to the profession or training. These degrees were all retired in 2003. The reform of higher education in Norway, Kvalitetsreformen ("The Quality Reform"), was passed in the Norwegian Parliament, the Storting, in 2001 and carried out during the 2003/2004 academic year. It introduced standard periods of study and the titles master and bachelor (baccalaureus). The system differentiates between a free master's degree and a master's degree in technology. The latter corresponds to the former sivilingeniør degree (not to be confused with a degree in civil engineering, which is but one of many degrees linked to the title sivilingeniør, which is still in use for new graduates who can chose to also use the old title). All pre-2001 doctoral degree titles were replaced with the title "Philosophical Doctor degree", written philosophiæ doctor (instead of the traditional doctor philosophiæ). The title dr. philos. is a substantially higher degree than the PhD, and is reserved for those who qualify for such a degree without participating in an organized doctoral degree program. Poland[edit] See also: Bologna_process § Poland In Poland the system is similar to the German one. licencjat title - given by a university; the equivalent of Bachelor of Arts degree or Bachelor of Science degree (depending on academic major); granted after at least 3 years of study. inżynier (inż.) title - Engineer's degree given by a technical university; granted after at least 3,5 to 4 years of study. magister (mgr) or magister inżynier (mgr inż.) title - the equivalent of an Master of Arts or Master of Science degree, granted after 5–6 years of study, or 1.5–2 years of additional study by holders of a bachelor degree with classification of Honours Degree. doktor (dr) degree - the equivalent of Doctor of Philosophy. doktor habilitowany (dr hab.) degree - Polish Habilitation degree, requires approval by an external ministerial body. profesor (prof.) degree – the highest title, officially conferred by the President of Poland. An academic degree is a college or university diploma, often associated with a title and sometimes associated with an academic position, which is usually awarded in recognition of the recipient having either satisfactorily completed a prescribed course of study or having conducted a scholarly endeavour deemed worthy of his or her admission to the degree. The most common degrees awarded today are associate, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees. Most higher education institutions generally offer certificates and several programs leading to the obtainment of a Master of Advanced Studies, which is predominantly known as a Diplôme d'études supérieures spécialisées, under its original French name. |
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