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Since 1992, Russian higher education has introduced a multilevel system, enabling higher education institutions to award and issue Bachelor of Science and Master of Science Degrees.[49] In Russia, Ukraine and some other former USSR republics educational degrees are awarded after finishing college education. There are several levels of education one must choose between 2nd and 3rd year usually on the 3rd year of study.[50] Bachelor degree - usually takes 4 years of college. (minimum level to be recognized as having Higher Education) Specialist degree is awarded after 5 years of college. (4 + 1) Master (Magister) degree is awarded after 6 years of college. (4 + 2) [51] (But Specialist degree can appear equivalent to Magister degree by reason of equivalence of amount of educational time). Usually Specialist or Magister degrees incorporates Bachelor degree in them, but only high level degree is stated in final diploma. Specialist and Magister degrees require taking final state exams and written work on practical application of studied skills or research thesis (usually 70-100 pages) and is roughly equivalent to Master's degree.[52] The first level academic degree is called "Kandidat nauk" (that could be translated verbatim as a "Candidate of Sciences"). This degree requires extensive research efforts, taking some classes, publications in peer-reviewed academic journals (usually 3 publications suffice), taking 3 exams (one in their speciality, one in a foreign language and one in the history and philosophy of science) and writing and defending an in-depth thesis (80-200 pages) called a "dissertation". Finally, there is a "Doktor Nauk" (that could be translated verbatim as a "Doctor of Sciences") degree in Russia and some former USSR academic environment. This degree is granted for contributions in a certain field (formally - who established new direction or new field in science). It requires discovery of new phenomenon, or development of new theory, or essential development of new direction, etc. There is no equivalent of this "doctor of sciences" degree in US academic system. It is roughly equivalent to Habilitation in Germany, France, Austria, and some other European countries. In countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of Kandidat Nauk should be considered for recognition at the level of the first doctoral degree. In countries with only one doctoral degree, the degree of Kandidat Nauk should be considered for recognition as equivalent to this degree. According to "Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other countries" In countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of Doktor Nauk should be considered for recognition at the level of the second doctoral degree. In countries in which only one doctoral degree exists, the degree of Doktor Nauk should be considered for recognition at the level of this degree. According to par.262 International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) UNESCO 2011, for purposes of international educational statistics 1. DPhil to Doktor Nauk/Philosophy, 2. D.Lit to Doktor Nauk in Literature, 3. D.Sc to Doktor Nauk of Natural Science, 4. LL.D to Doktor Nauk of Legal Science. Spain[edit] Spain's higher-education legal framework includes: Official and accredited education, and Non-official education. 1.1 Official and accredited education. In Spain, accreditation of official university study programmes is regulated by law and monitored by governmental agencies responsible for verifying their quality and suitability for official approval and accreditation. Official professional study programmes lead to degree qualifications (Títulos) with full academic and professional effects, and the degrees awarded in accordance with the latest higher-education system are: 1. Bachelor’s Degree (Grado) - 240 ECTS Credits in 4 years. 2. Master’s Degree (Master Universitario) - 60 to 120 ECTS Credits in 1–2 years. 3. Doctoral Degree PhD (Doctorado) - in 3–4 years. Accredited Bachelor's Degrees and Master’s Degrees qualifications will always be described as "Grado" and "Master Universitario". These qualifications comply with the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) framework. Officially approved and accredited university study programmes must implement this framework by law in order to attain and retain accreditation in Spain. Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 02 1.2 Non-official education. Not all EHEA compliant study programmes in Spain are officially approved and/or accredited by government agencies. Some universities offer proprietary study programmes as an alternative to accredited study programmes for a variety of reasons: attending the continuing education market for individual self-advancement and also providing higher education to individuals that have failed to acquire Bachelor’s Degree qualifications. The main reason for offering this alternative studies, though, is the heavy burocratic process that needs to be accomplished to receive the approval of specific titles, in particular when it refers to new studies or studies about matters that do not fit with the official studies. For historical reasons, the academic system has been very much under the control of the State, and private universities are still regarded with as a threat to the State system. These programmes fall within the category of "Non officially approved and accredited" or "Estudios no oficiales" and they have no academic or professional effects. This means that they do not entitle the bearer to claim to have any specific academic or professional qualifications, as far as the Spanish authorities are concerned. However, there may be private agreements to recognize the titles. Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 01 Universities offering non-official study programmes are legally bound to clearly differentiate between officially approved and non-officially approved qualifications when naming their offer of non-official qualifications. Non-accredited Master's Degrees will be described as "Master" on its own, without the term "Universitario". Certain non-officially approved and accredited study programmes may acquire a well deserved reputation. However, neither Professional Association, Government Agencies, Judiciary Authorities, nor Universities -other than the study programme provider- are obliged to recognize non-official qualifications in any way. 2. Accreditation System University taught study programmes accreditation is granted through the ANECA, a government dependent quality assurance and accreditation provider for the Spanish Higher Education System and ensures that the data held in the RUCT, a national registry for universities and qualifications, is correct and up to date. All study programmes must be accredited by ANECA prior to their inclusion in the RUCT. The RUCT records all officially approved Universities and their Bachelor's Degrees, Master's Degrees and PhDs, and each and every one of the officially approved and accredited study programmes and universities are assigned a specific number Code (Código) by the RUCT. The same study programme may acquire different codes as it progresses through various stages of official approval by local government and central government. Prospective students should check the RUCT Code awarded to the study programme of their interest at every stage of their enquiries concerning degrees in Spain. ANECA makes recommendations regarding procedures, staffing levels, quality of teaching, resources available to students, and continuity or loss of accreditation and the ANECA Registry records all events in the life of an officially approved and accredited study programme or a university. The ANECA Registry Search Facility may be the simplest and safest way to verify the status of all officially approved and accredited study programmes in Spain. It is also possible to track qualifications by using the search facility that several Autonomous Communities own accreditation agencies offer. These agencies work within the ANECA framework, and generally show more detailed information about the study programmes available in each territory (i.e.: Catalonia, Madrid, etc.) 3. Qualifications framework for Higher Education. The qualifications framework for higher education MECES is the reference framework adopted in Spain in order to structure degree levels. Not all universities offer degrees named exactly the same, even if they have similar academic and professional effects. Each university may present proposals for the study programme considered to meet professional and academic demand. The proposal will consist of a report linking the study programme being considered and the proposed qualification to be awarded. This report will be assessed by ANECA and sent for the Consejo de Universidades Españolas upon approval. If the Consejo agrees with ANECA’s approval, it will be included in the RUCT and ANECA registries. 4. Spanish qualifications and their professional effects. All Bachelor's and Master’s Degrees accredited by ANECA enjoy full academic and professional effects in accordance with new and previous laws. Professional practice law in Spain is currently under revision. Sweden[edit] See also: Bologna process § Sweden [icon] This section requires expansion. (May 2008) Switzerland[edit] Before the Bologna Process after 4 or 5 years of study the academic degree of a Licentiate was reached.[53] Depending on the official language of the university it was called Lizentiat (German) Licence (French) or licenza (Italian) and is today considered equivalent[54] to the Master's degree according to the Bologna reform. A Licentiate with a predefined qualification gave access to the last stage of further two or more years of studies (depending on the field) for a Doctoral's degree. Apart from this most universities offered a Postgraduate Diploma with up to two years of study. French-speaking universities called them diplôme d'études approfondies DEA or DESS, the Italian-speaking University post laurea and German-speaking universities mostly Nachdiplomstudium (NDS). Today the federal legislation defines these postgraduate diplomas (60 ECTS credits) as Master of Advanced Studies (MAS) or Executive Master of Business Administration (EMBA) degree. Universities may also offer the possibility to gain a Diploma of Advanced Studies (DAS), less than 60 ECTS credits).[55] These degrees do not normally give access to the doctorate study. United Kingdom[edit] England, Wales and Northern Ireland[edit] The title 'degree' is protected under UK law. All valid UK degrees are awarded by universities or other degree-awarding bodies whose powers to do so are recognised by the UK government; hence they are known as 'recognised bodies'.[56] The standard first degree in England, Northern Ireland and Wales is the Bachelor's degree conferred with honours. Usually this is a Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BSc) degree. Other variants exist, for example Bachelor of Education. It usually takes three years to read for a Bachelor's degree. The honours are usually categorised into four classes: First class honours (1st) Second class honours, divided into: Upper division, or upper second (2:1) Lower division, or lower second (2:2) Third class honours (3rd) Candidates who have not achieved the standard for the award of honours may be admitted without honours to the 'ordinary' Bachelor's degree if they have met the required standard for this lesser qualification (also referred to as a 'pass degree'). The foundation degree[57] is a qualification at lower than Bachelor's level awarded following a two-year programme of study that is usually vocational in nature. The foundation degree can be awarded by a university or college of higher education that has been granted foundation degree awarding powers by the UK government. This degree is comparable to an associate degree in the United States. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge award honorary Master of Arts (MA) degrees to graduates of their Bachelor's programmes, following a specified period of time. This is comparable to the practice of the ancient universities in Scotland of awarding an MA for a first degree, and arguably reflects the rigorous standards expected of their graduates. Master's degrees[58] such as Master of Arts or Master of Science are typically awarded to students who have undertaken at least a year of full-time postgraduate study, which may be taught or, in many cases, involve an element of research. Degrees such as Master of Philosophy (MPhil) or Master of Letters/Literature (MLitt) are likely to be awarded for postgraduate degrees involving original research. A student undertaking a Master's would normally be expected to already hold an honours degree in a relevant subject, hence the possibility of reaching Master's level in one year. Some universities award a Master's as a first degree following an integrated programme of study (an 'integrated master's degree'). These degrees are usually designated by the subject, such as Master of Engineering for engineering, Master of Physics for physics, Master of Mathematics for mathematics, and so on; it usually takes four years to read for them. Graduation to these degrees is always with honours. Master of Engineering in particular has now become the standard first degree in engineering at the top UK universities, replacing the older Bachelor of Engineering. The Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree is highly valued by those seeking to advance in business as managers and decision makers. Doctoral degrees or doctorates,[59] such as the Doctor of Philosophy degree (PhD or DPhil), are awarded following a programme of original research that contributes new knowledge within the context of the student's discipline. Doctoral degrees usually take three years full-time. Therefore in the UK it may only take seven years to progress from undergraduate to doctoral level - in some cases six, since having a Master's is not always a precondition for embarking on a Doctoral degree. This contrasts with nine years in the United States, reflecting differences in the educational systems. Some doctorates, such as the Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy) qualification, confirm competence to practice in particular professions. There are also higher doctorates - Doctor of Science (DSc) and Doctor of Letters/Literature (DLitt) that are typically awarded to experienced academics who have demonstrated a high level of achievement in their academic career; for example they may have published widely on their subject or become professors in their field. UK post-secondary qualifications are defined at different levels, with levels 1-3 denoting further education and levels 4-8 denoting higher education. Within this structure, a foundation degree is at level 5; a Bachelor's at level 6; at Master's at level 7; and a Doctoral degree at level 8.[60] Full information about the expectations for different types of UK degree is published by the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education.[61] See also graduate certificate, graduate diploma, postgraduate certificate, postgraduate diploma and British degree abbreviations. Scotland[edit] The standard first degree for students studying arts or humanities in Scotland is either a Bachelor of Arts or a Master of Arts (the latter traditionally awarded by the Ancient Universities of Scotland for a first degree in an arts/humanities subject). The standard undergraduate degree for natural and social science subjects is the Bachelor of Science.[62] Students can work towards a first degree at either ordinary or honours level. A general or ordinary degree (BA/MA or BSc) takes three years to complete; an honours degree (BA/MA Hons or BSc Hons) takes four years. The ordinary degree need not be in a specific subject, but can involve study across a range of subjects within (and sometimes beyond) the relevant faculty, in which case it may also be called a general degree; if a third year or junior honours subject is included, the ordinary degree in that named discipline is awarded. The honours degree involves two years of study at a sub-honours level in which a range of subjects within the relevant faculty are studied, and then two years of study at honours level which is specialised in a single field (for example classics, history, chemistry, biology, etc.). This also reflects the broader scope of the final years of Scottish secondary education, where traditionally five Highers are studied, compared to (typically) three English or Welsh A-Levels. The Higher is a one-year qualification, as opposed to the two years of A-Levels, which accounts for Scottish honours degrees being a year longer than those in England. Advanced Highers add an optional final year of secondary education, bringing students up to the level of their A-Level counterparts - students with strong A-Levels or Advanced Highers may be offered entry directly into the second year at Scottish universities. Honours for MA or Bachelors degrees are classified into three classes: First class honours Second class honours, divided into: Division one (2:1) [Upper Second Class Honours] Division two (2:2) [Lower Second Class Honours] Third class honours Students who complete all the requirements for an honours degree, but do not receive sufficient merit to be awarded third-class honours may be awarded a Special Degree (ordinary degree - bachelors level SCQF Level 9). In most respects, the criteria for awarding qualifications at honours level and above are the same as in the rest of the UK (see above under England, Wales and Northern Ireland). Postgraduate qualifications are not designated Master of Arts as in the rest of the UK, as this is an undergraduate degree. Postgraduate degrees in arts and humanities subjects are usually designated Master of Letters (MLitt) or, in natural and social sciences, Master of Science (MSc). Non-doctoral postgraduate research degrees are usually designated Master of Philosophy (MPhil) or Master of Research (MRes). The postgraduate teaching qualification is the Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE). Postgraduate qualifications are classified into four classes: Distinction Credit Merit Pass North America[edit] Canada and United States[edit] In the United States and Canada, since the late 19th century, the threefold degree system of bachelor, master and doctor has been in place, but follows a slightly different pattern of study from the European equivalent. In the United States and Canada, most standard academic programs are based on the four-year bachelor's degree, most often Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), or Bachelor of Science (B.S./B.Sc.), a one- or two-year master's degree (most often Master of Arts (M.A.), or Master of Science (M.S./M.Sc.); either of these programs might be as long as three years in length), and a further two to five years of coursework and research, culminating in "comprehensive" examinations in one or more fields, plus perhaps some teaching experience, and then the writing of a dissertation for the doctorate, most often Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), or other types such as Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.), Doctor of Theology, (Th.D.), for a total of ten or more years from starting the bachelor's degree (which is usually begun around age 18) to the awarding of the doctorate. This timetable is only approximate, however, as students in accelerated programs can sometimes earn a bachelor's degree in three years or, on the other hand, a particular dissertation project might take four or more years to complete. In addition, a graduate may wait an indeterminate time between degrees before candidacy in the next level, or even an additional degree at a level already completed. Therefore, there is no time-limit on the accumulation of academic degrees. Some schools, mostly junior colleges and community colleges and some four-year schools, offer an associate degree for two full years of study, often in pre-professional areas. These may stand alone, or sometimes be used as credit toward completion of the four-year bachelor's degree. In Canada and the United States, there is also another class of degrees called "First Professional degree". These degree programs are designed for professional practice in various fields other than academic scholarship. Most professional degree programs require a prior bachelor's degree for admission, and so represent at least about five total years of study and as many as seven or eight. Some fields such as fine art, architecture, or divinity call their first professional degree a "master's degree" (e.g., M.Arch., M.B.A.) because most of these degrees require at least the completion of a bachelor's degree. There is currently some debate in the architectural community to rename the degree to a doctorate in the manner that was done for the law degree decades ago, however, this would also require increasing the length of their education.[citation needed] In the United States and Canada, many colleges and universities offer also an "honors bachelor's degree". The term "Honours" is an academic distinction, which indicates that students must achieve their bachelor's degree with a sufficiently high overall grade point average; in addition, some programs may require more education than non-honours programs. The honours degrees are sometimes designated with the abbreviation in brackets of '(Hon(s))'. It should not be confused with the Canadian consecutive bachelor's degree "with Honours", Latin "Baccalaureatus Cum Honore", abbr. e.g. 'BA hon.' de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a "postgraduate" degree which is considered to be the equivalent of corresponding maîtrise degrees under the French influenced system e.g. in Québec. Going back in history, in Canada a three-year bachelor´s degree (also known e.g. in Québec as grade de bachelier) was also called a pass degree or general degree. A student who first achieve a general bachelor's degree with a sufficiently high overall average may be admitted to a "postgraduate" Baccalaureatus Cum Honrore degree in the same field; it requires a minimum of one years but may also take longer; it typically does not exceed two years. Students are required to undertake a long high quality research empirical thesis (Honours Seminar Thesis) combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high quality research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) program without the requirement to first complete a Master's degree. Over the years, in some Canadian universities certain Baccalaureatus Cum Honore programs have been changed to correspondig master´s degrees. In 21 US jurisdictions, religious institutions can be authorized to grant religious-exempt (rel. exmpt., rel. expt. etc.) degrees without accreditation or government oversight.[63] Such degrees are used primarily to attain church-related employment.[64] In Canada, professional degrees in medicine (the Doctor of Medicine (M.D.)), law (the Juris Doctor (J.D.)), and pharmacy (the Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.)) are considered to be undergraduate (first cycle) degrees[65][66][67][68][69] whereas M.D., J.D., or D.O. are first professional doctorates (third cycle degrees) in the United States, whereas the Ph.D. is the highest degree offered in the United States and is a fourth cycle degree.[70] Quebec[edit] In the province of Quebec, the grand majority of students attend CEGEP prior to entering university. Upon completion of a two-year pre-universty program, such as Sciences de la nature or Sciences humaines, or a three-year technical/career program, such as Soins infirmiers or Techniques de génie mécanique, graduates obtain a Diplôme d'études collégiales (DEC), which grants access to university-level studies. Although the previously mentioned CEGEP programs are typical, they are not offered in every institution in the province. Moreover, while a few other pre-university programs with various concentrations exist, many other technical/career programs are available depending on the CEGEP of choice. For example, Dawson College in Montreal has nearly sixty different programs leading to a DEC. Special programs, such as physical rehabilitation therapy, are offered in some CEGEPs as well. These programs are particularly interesting because they allow students to enter professional university programs, such as physiotherapy (which consists of an integrated Bachelor of Science in Physiotherapy and Master of Physical Therapy), without having to meet the usual grade and course pre-requisites required from students holding a pre-university science DEC. A similar option is offered for CEGEP nursing graduates as they can pursue their studies in university to obtain aBachelor of Nursing in two years (rather than the usual three or four years, depending on whether the student has completed a CEGEP diploma in Quebec). Additionally, Whereas aspiring medical students are usually required to complete an undergraduate degree before applying to medical schools, Quebec CEGEP graduates have the option to enter: a "medical preparatory" year at McGill University and Université de Montréal and then pursue medical studies for the four following years or simply directly into the undergraduate medical education program at Université Laval (4 to 5 years in duration) or Université de Sherbrooke (4 years in duration). Mexico[edit] Education in Mexico follows a three-degree system similar to that of Canada and the US. After high school, students progress to university, where they study for a licenciatura, then a maestría, then a doctorado. The pre-university academic level is the bachillerato (also called preparatoria), similar to high school. Students typically leave preparatoria at the age of 18 for university, at which point they choose to specialize in a specific academic area. Once in university, students begin the carrera, the study of a precise academic branch like economics, business administration, sciences, law, engineering, or medicine. Students will be in university for 8-10 semesters of full-time study, which typically takes 4–5 years. Upon graduation, students receive a licenciatura in their chosen subject area, which is equivalent to an American Bachelor's degree. They can also get the degree of "ingenieria" or "medico" that refers to an engineer or MD respectively. After receiving the licenciatura, students may take extra courses called diplomados. These courses last 4–12 months and are a means to further study without continuing to the next degree level. Most students stay at this level, but some choose to continue to the maestría, equivalent to the Master's degree. Study at the maestría level takes 2–3 years and mandates completion of a thesis. Post-graduate students in Mexico typically enter a master's program after a few years in the workforce and often continue working while studying. Traditionally, students who have completed the maestria may continue on to the doctorado, or the doctorate. Doctoral study typically lasts 3–4 years. In last years this schemes has become flexible such that in some PhD programmes, students are accepted before, or not completing at all a Master course. Oceania[edit] Australia & New Zealand[edit] Main article: Australian Qualifications Framework The Australian and New Zealand academic degrees are diplomas (1–2 years), advanced diplomas (1–2 years), bachelors degrees (3 years), bachelor's degrees with honours (bachelors + 1 year), master's degrees (bachelors + 1–2 years), postgraduate diplomas (1–2 years), graduate diplomas (1–2 years) and doctorates (Bachelor with Honours or Masters + 3–4 years). In Australia, most degrees are issued ungraded, with bachelors degrees with honours being the exception. In New Zealand, both Masters and Bachelors with Honours are awarded graded. (e.g. - A Master of Science with First Class Honours) The bachelors degree is the standard university qualification. In both Australia and New Zealand, unlike some other countries, honours degrees require an additional year of research and study on top of a bachelors degree, and are undertaken by invitation only. Masters degrees may be by coursework or research. Doctorates are by research only (e.g. the PhD) or by some combination of coursework and research (e.g. the DBA, EdD). Some extended Master's degrees in medicine, veterinary science, and law may carry a "Doctor of" title in alignment with American usage, but are not doctorates. Nevertheless, professionals in some of these fields use the title "doctor" in spite of possessing only Bachelors or Masters degrees. Some bachelors degrees (e.g. Bachelors of Engineering or Bachelor of Medicine/Bachelor of Surgery) may take longer than three years to complete, and double bachelors degrees (i.e. completing two bachelors degrees simultaneously in four to five years) are common. South America[edit] Argentina[edit] Main article: Education in Argentina Brazil[edit] Undergraduate students in Brazilian universities normally graduate either with a Bacharel degree, a Licentiate degree (both equivalent to an American B.S. or B.A.) or with a professional degree (roughly modeled on the old German Diplom). Bacharel degrees are awarded in most fields of study in the arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematics, or natural sciences and normally take four years to complete (some degrees, as in Law and Engineering, require an extra fifth year to be obtained). Professional degrees are awarded in state-regulated professions such as architecture, engineering, psychology, pharmacy, dentistry, veterinary medicine, or human medicine and are named after the profession itself, i.e. one graduates with a degree of Engenheiro (engineer), Arquiteto (architect), or Médico (physician/surgeon) for example. A typical course of study leading to a first professional degree in Brazil normally takes five years of full-time study to complete, with the exception of the human medicine course which requires six years. In addition to the standard Bacharel and professional degrees, Brazilian universities also offer the Licenciatura degree, generally four-years length degrees, available for students who want to qualify as school teachers. Licenciatura courses exist mostly in mathematics, humanities, and natural sciences. Tecnólogo (Technologist) is also available in technology-related fields and can be normally obtained in three years only. Admission as an undergraduate student in most top public or private universities in Brazil requires that the applicant pass a competitive entrance examination known as Vestibular. Contrary to what happens in the United States, candidates must declare their intended university major when they register for the Vestibular. Although it is theoretically possible to switch majors afterwards (in a process known within the universities as transferência interna), that is actually quite rare in Brazil. Undergraduate curricula tend to be more rigid than in the United States and there is little room to take classes outside one's major. Individuals who hold either a Bacharel degree, a professional diploma, Tecnólogo or Licenciatura are eligible for admission into graduate courses leading to advanced master's or doctor's degrees. Criteria for admission into master's and doctor's programs vary in Brazil. Some universities require that candidates take entrance exams; others make admission decisions based solely on undergraduate transcripts, letters of recommendation, and possibly oral interviews. In most cases, however, especially for the doctorate, the candidate is required to submit a research plan and one faculty member must agree to serve as his/her supervisor before the candidate can be admitted into the program; The exception are the Natural Sciences post-graduate programs, that accepts students with very broad and/or vague research prospects with sometimes the prospect is given in promptu during the interview, preferring to let the students define their study program and advisor in the course of the first year of studies. There are two types of post-graduate programs, lato sensu (specialization, professional Masters and MBAs) and strictu sensu (Master and Doctorate): Specializations, professional Masters or MBAs are courses that include taking a minimum number (minimum 360 hours) of graduate classes but with no need to do research nor defend a thesis, only present a final work showing the knowledge. It's a professional level where theory and practice are focused in a broad sense. Master's degrees usually takes one to two years of full-time study. Requirements for an academic master's degree include taking a minimum number of advanced graduate classes (typically between five and eight)and submitting a research thesis which is examined orally by a panel of at least two examiners (three is the preferred number), sometimes including one external member who must be from another university or research institute. The emphasis of the thesis must be in adding some value to the academic knowledge, but not necessarily in being original. Doctor's degrees normally take four additional years of full-time study to complete. Requirements for obtaining a doctor's degree include taking additional advanced courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a longer doctoral dissertation which must represent a significant original contribution to knowledge in the field to which the dissertation topic is related. That contrasts with master's thesis, which, in addition to being usually shorter than doctoral dissertations, are not required to include creation of new knowledge or revision/reinterpretation of older views/theories. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final oral exam before a panel of at least two members (in the state of São Paulo the preferred number is five, while the other regions prefer three members), usually including one or two external examiners from another university or research institute. Finally, a small number of Brazilian universities, most notably the public universities in the state of São Paulo still award the title of Livre-Docente (free docent), which is of higher standing than a doctorate and is obtained, similar to the German Habilitation, by the submission of a second (original or cumulative) thesis and approval in a Livre-Docência examination that includes giving a public lecture before a panel of full professors. See also Universities and Higher Education in Brazil Colombia[edit] In Colombia, the system of academic degrees is similar to the U.S. model. After completing their "bachillerato" (high school), students can take one of three options. The first one is called a "Profesional" (professional career), which is similar to a Bachelor's Degree requiring from four to 6 years of study according to the chosen program. The other option is called a "Técnico" (technician); this degree consists of only two and a half years of study and prepares the student for technical or mechanical labors. Finally, the third option is called a ¨Tecnólogo¨ (equivalent to Associate degree), and consist of 3 years of study. After this, students, now called "profesional" (professionals), Tecnólogos (associates) or "técnicos" (technicians), can opt for higher degrees. Formal education after the Bachelor's degree is the Master's degree with the title of "Maestro", and Doctorate's degree known as "Doctorado" (doctorate). The Master's degree normally consists of two years. Commonly, students prefer to take an specialization course, "Especialización", after their bachelor's degree rather than the more formal Master and Doctorate paths. This program is very popular in the country, because it requires only one year to complete and because the student only acquires the technical knowledge, without the bulk of the theoretical subjects. A similar situation in Colombia, when compared to the U.S. system, is that the students may not go directly to the "Doctorado" without having the "Master" degree first. Chile[edit] In Chile, the system in a nutshell is as follows: Quite similar to the case described for Colombia, students may opt to be "Profesionales"(Professionals) or "Técnicos"(Technicians). After completion of high school, students may follow professional or technical studies at Universities or Technical schools. Only Universities and the Academies of the Armed Forces can give Academic Degrees. In general, traditional professions require an Academic Degree, but there are many professions that not require the degree because they were conceived as strictly "professional" not academic. The degrees are as follows: "Licenciado" it is similar to the Bachelor, but to get it is necessary to complete at least eight semesters of study on the subjects which are part of the Mayor. This degree is enough to continue developing an academic career, however, to get a professional title -which is not academic, but allows you to get a professional practice, you have to continue one or two additional years of study. (For example to be an engineer it is necessary to study four years to get a Licentiate in Engineering Sciences, and two additional years to get a Professional Title and become an engineer. Sometimes it is possible to take additional subjects and get a "Magister" degree besides the professional title.) "Magister" is the equivalent to the Master degree in English speaking countries. "Doctorado" is the equivalent to the Doctorate or Phd. There is no separate classification for Professional Doctorates. In particular, the engineering profession may be complicated for the foreigner since there are two types of engineers: those who got an Academic Degree such as Civil Engineers or Armed Forced Politechnical Engineers, and those who are "Ingenieros en Ejecución" (Professional Engineers) which are considered terrain Engineer more focused to apply the engineering in the field and completed only four years of study. They are not able, by law, to authorise plans or drawings like engineers with a degree or architects. Venezuela[edit] Titles in Venezuela start with the Certificado de Educación Básica (Certificate of Basic Education), awarded upon completing 9th grade. The next title is earned upon completing 11th grade, and may be Bachiller en Ciencias (Bachelor of the Sciences), Bachiller en Humanidades (Bachelor of Humanities), or Técnico en Ciencias (Technician of the Sciences). The reason for this diversity is because some schools provide vocational education as part of their high school curriculum (thereby allowing them to hand out "Technician" titles) while elsewhere, the student is required to decide whether to study Sciences or Humanities for the last two years of secondary school. Titles at the higher education level usually depend on the institution handing them out. Technical schools award the student with the tile of Técnico Superior Universitario (University Higher Technician, to distinguish from Technicians of the Sciences). Universities award the student with the title of Ingeniero (Engineer) or with the title Licenciado (Licentiate) after completing a five-year program. The Engineer have more physics subjects than the Licenciate, but both are five-year careers. Some higher education institutions may award Diplomados (Diploma) but the time necessary to obtain one varies. Medical Doctors are awarded the title "Médico Cirujano" after completing a 6 year-career. Post-graduate education follows conventions of the United States (being named "Master's" and "Doctorate" after the programes there) Pontifical Universities[edit] Pontifical universities around the world such as the Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas in Manila,[71] The Catholic University of America, the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum in Rome, the Université catholique de Louvain in Belgium, and the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru depend for their status as pontifical universities and for the nature of their academic degrees on the Pope through the Congregation for Catholic Education. The nature of academic degrees from ecclesiastical institutions of education is outlined in the apostolic constitution Sapientia Christiana,[72] In distinction to secular or Catholic universities, which are academic institutions for the study and teaching of a broad range of disciplines, Ecclesiastical or Pontifical universities "are usually composed of three principal ecclesiastical faculties, theology, philosophy, and canon law, and at least one other faculty. A Pontifical university specifically addresses Christian revelation and disciplines correlative to the evangelical mission of the Church as set out in the apostolic constitution Sapientia christiana."[72][73] There are three cycles of degrees that constitute the core of degrees granted by pontifical universities: the first cycle leading to the baccalaureate degree; the second cycle leading to the licentiate degree; the third cycle leading to the doctorate. From this core pontifical universities confer degrees including: Theology: Baccalaureate in Sacred Theology, Sacrae Theologiae Baccalaureatus (S.T.B.) Licentiate in Sacred Theology, Sacrae Theologiae Licentiatus (S.T.L.) Doctorate in Sacred Theology, Sacrae Theologiae Doctoratus (S.T.D.) Philosophy: Baccalaureate in Philosophy, Philosophiae Baccalaureatus (Ph.B.) Licentiate in Philosophy, Philosophiae Licentiatus (Ph.L.) Doctorate in Philosophy, Philosophiae Doctoratus (Ph.D.) Canon Law: Baccalaureate in Canon Law, Juris Canonici Baccalaureatus (J.C.B.) Licentiate in Canon Law, Iuris Canonici Licentiatus (J.C.L.) Doctorate in Canon Law, Iuris Canonici Doctoratus (J.C.D.) |
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