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Joseph Smith, Jr. was born on December 23, 1805, in Sharon, Vermont, to Lucy Mack Smith and her husband Joseph, a merchant and farmer.[6] After suffering a crippling bone infection when he was seven, the younger Smith hobbled around on crutches for three years.[7] In 1816–17, after an ill-fated business venture and three years of crop failures, the Smith family moved to the western New York village of Palmyra, and eventually took a mortgage on a 100-acre (40 ha) farm in the nearby town of Manchester. During the Second Great Awakening, the region was a hotbed of religious enthusiasm. Between 1817 and 1825 there were several camp meetings and revivals in the Palmyra area.[8] Although Smith's parents disagreed about religion, the family was caught up in this excitement.[9] Smith later said he became interested in religion at about the age of twelve; he did participate in church classes, read the Bible, and as a teenager may have expressed an interest in Methodism.[10] With his family, he also engaged in religious folk magic, not an uncommon practice at the time.[11] Like many people of that era, both his parents and his maternal grandfather reportedly had visions or dreams that they believed communicated messages from God.[12] Smith said that although he had become concerned about the welfare of his soul, he was confused by the claims of competing religious denominations.[13] Years later Smith said that in 1820 he had received a vision from God the Father and the Son that resolved his religious confusion.[14] While praying in a wooded area near his home, he said that God, in a vision, had told him his sins were forgiven and that all contemporary churches had "turned aside from the gospel."[15] Smith said he told the experience to a preacher, who dismissed the story with contempt; but the experience was largely unknown, even to most Mormons, until the 1840s.[16] Although Smith may have understood the event as a personal conversion, this "First Vision" later grew in importance among Mormons, who today see it as the founding event of Mormonism.[17] Smith said he received golden plates from the angel Moroni at the Hill Cumorah. In 1823, Smith said that while praying one night for forgiveness from his sins, he was visited by an angel named Moroni, who revealed the location of a buried book made of golden plates, as well as other artifacts, including a breastplate and a set of interpreters composed of two seer stones set in a frame, which had been hidden in a hill in Manchester near his home.[18] Smith said he attempted to remove the plates the next morning but was unsuccessful because the angel prevented him.[19] During the next four years, Smith made annual visits to the hill, but each time returned without the plates.[20] Meanwhile, the Smith family faced financial hardship due in part to the November 1823 death of Smith's oldest brother Alvin, who had assumed a leadership role in the family.[21] Family members supplemented their meager farm income by hiring out for odd jobs and working as treasure seekers, a type of magical supernaturalism common during the period.[22] Smith was said to have an ability to locate lost items by looking into a seer stone, which he also used in treasure hunting, including several unsuccessful attempts to find buried treasure sponsored by a wealthy farmer in Chenango County, New York. [23] In 1826, Smith was brought before a Chenango County court for "glass-looking", or pretending to find lost treasure.[24] The result of the proceeding remains unclear as primary sources report various conflicting outcomes.[25] While boarding at the Hale house in Harmony, Pennsylvania, Smith met and began courting Emma Hale. When Smith proposed marriage, Emma's father Isaac Hale objected because Smith was "a stranger" without a proven reputation and had no means of supporting his daughter other than money digging.[26] Smith and Emma eloped and were married on January 18, 1827, after which the couple began boarding with Smith's parents in Manchester. Later that year, when Smith promised to abandon treasure seeking, Hale offered to let the couple to live on his property in Harmony and help Smith get started in business.[27] On September 22, 1827, Smith made his last annual visit to the hill, taking Emma with him.[28] This time, he said he retrieved the plates and put them in a locked chest. He said the angel commanded him not to show the plates to anyone else but to publish their translation, reputed to be the religious record of indigenous Americans.[29] Although Smith had left his treasure hunting company, his former associates believed he had double-crossed them by taking for himself what they considered joint property.[30] After they ransacked places where a competing treasure-seer said the plates were hidden, Smith decided to leave Palmyra.[31] Founding a church (1827–30) Main article: Life of Joseph Smith from 1827 to 1830 In October 1827, Smith and his pregnant wife moved from Palmyra to Harmony (now Oakland, Pennsylvania), aided by money from a comparatively prosperous neighbor, Martin Harris.[32] Living near his in-laws, Smith transcribed some characters which he said were engraved on the plates, and then dictated a translation to his wife.[33] In February 1828, Martin Harris arrived to assist Smith by transcribing as Smith dictated. Harris took a sample of the characters to a few prominent scholars, including Charles Anthon, who Harris said initially authenticated the characters and their translation but then recanted upon hearing that Smith had received the plates from an angel.[34] Anthon denied Harris's description of the meeting, claiming instead that he had tried to convince Harris that he was a victim of fraud. Nevertheless, Harris returned to Harmony in April 1828, motivated to continue as Smith's scribe.[35] Smith continued to dictate to Harris until mid-June 1828, when Harris began having doubts about the project, fueled in part by his wife's skepticism. Harris convinced Smith to let him take the existing 116 pages of manuscript to Palmyra to show a few family members, including his wife.[36] Harris lost the manuscript—of which there was no copy—at about the same time as Smith's wife Emma gave birth to a stillborn son.[37] Smith said that as punishment for losing the manuscript the angel took away the plates and revoked his ability to translate until September 22, 1828, when Smith said that the plates were returned to him.[38] Image Cover page of the Book of Mormon, original 1830 edition Smith did not earnestly resume dictation again until April 1829, when he met Oliver Cowdery, who replaced Harris as Smith's scribe.[39] They worked full time on the manuscript between April and early June 1829, and then moved to Fayette, New York, where they continued to work at the home of Cowdery's friend Peter Whitmer.[40] When the narrative described an institutional church and a requirement for baptism, Smith and Cowdery baptized each other.[41] Dictation was completed around July 1, 1829.[42] Although Smith had previously refused to show the plates to anyone, he told Martin Harris, Oliver Cowdery, and David Whitmer that they would be allowed to see them.[43] These men, known collectively as the Three Witnesses—along with a later group of Eight Witnesses composed of male members of the Whitmer and Smith families—signed statements testifying that they had seen the golden plates; the eight witnesses also said they actually handled the plates.[44] According to Smith, the angel Moroni took back the plates after Smith was finished using them. The completed work, known as the Book of Mormon, was published in Palmyra on March 26, 1830, by printer E. B. Grandin. Martin Harris financed the publication by mortgaging his farm. Soon after, on April 6, 1830, Smith and his followers formally organized the Church of Christ, and small branches were established in Palmyra, Fayette, and Colesville, New York.[45] The Book of Mormon brought Smith regional notoriety, but also strong opposition by those who remembered Smith's money-digging and his 1826 trial near Colesville.[46] After Cowdery baptized several new members, the Mormons began receiving threats of mob violence. Before Smith could confirm the newly baptized members, he was arrested and brought to trial as a disorderly person.[47] Though Smith was acquitted, he and Cowdery had to flee Colesville to escape a gathering mob. In probable reference to this period of flight, Smith said that Peter, James, and Johnhad appeared to him and had ordained him and Cowdery to a higher priesthood.[48] Oliver Cowdery, Hiram Page, and other church members, also claimed to receive revelations, which undermined Smith's authority.[49] In response, Smith dictated a revelation which laid out church procedures and leadership structure, and established that Smith would be the only person who could receive revelations for the entire church.[50] Shortly after the conference, Smith dispatched Cowdery, Peter Whitmer, and others on a mission to proselytize the Native Americans.[51] Cowdery was also assigned the task of locating a site to build a New Jerusalem.[52] On their way to Missouri, Cowdery's party passed through the Kirtland, Ohio, area and converted Sidney Rigdon and over a hundred members of his Disciples of Christ congregation, which more than doubled the size of the church.[53] Rigdon visited New York and quickly became Smith's primary assistant.[54] In the face of acute and growing opposition in New York, Smith announced that Kirtland was the "eastern boundary" of the New Jerusalem, and that his followers must gather there.[55] Life in Ohio (1831–38) Main articles: Life of Joseph Smith from 1831 to 1834 and Life of Joseph Smith from 1834 to 1837 When Smith moved to Kirtland in January 1831, he encountered a religious culture that included enthusiastic demonstrations of spiritual gifts, including hysterical fits and trances, rolling on the floor, and speaking in tongues.[56] Smith tamed these outbursts by producing two revelations that brought the Kirtland congregation within the sphere of his own religious authority. Prior to conversion, the congregation had been practicing a form of Christian communalism, and Smith adopted a communal system within his own church, calling it the United Order.[57] Smith had promised the church's elders that in Kirtland they would receive an endowment of heavenly power, and in the church's June 1831 general conference, he introduced the greater authority of a High ("Melchizedek") Priesthood to the church hierarchy.[58] Angry men surrounding Smith at night A mob tarred and feathered Smith in 1832. As new converts poured into Kirtland, the church grew.[59] By the summer of 1835, there were fifteen hundred to two thousand Mormons in the vicinity of Kirtland, many expecting Smith to lead them shortly to the Millennial kingdom.[60] Though Oliver Cowdery's mission to the Indians had been a failure, halted by a Federal agent to the Indian tribes, Cowdery sent word that he had found the site for the New Jerusalem in Jackson County, Missouri.[61] After Smith visited there in July 1831, he agreed and pronounced the county's rugged outpost Independence to be the "center place" of Zion.[62] Rigdon, however, disapproved of the location, and for most of the 1830s the church was divided between Ohio and Missouri.[63] Smith continued to live in Ohio, but visited Missouri again in early 1832 in order to prevent a rebellion of prominent church members, including Cowdery, who believed Zion was being neglected.[64] Smith's trip was hastened by a mob of residents who were incensed over the United Order and Smith's political power; the mob beat Smith and Rigdon unconscious, tarred and feathered them, and left them for dead.[65] In Jackson County, older Missouri residents resented the Mormon newcomers for various political and religious reasons.[66] Mistrusts and tensions grew steadily until July 1833, when the non-Mormon residents forcibly evicted all Mormon settlers; many were attacked and had their property destroyed. Smith advised them to bear the violence patiently until a fourth attack, after which they were permitted to fight back.[67] Nevertheless, once they began to defend themselves, the Mormons were brutally expelled from the county.[68] In response to an 1834 revelation, Smith led a small paramilitary expedition, later called Zion's Camp, to aid the Missouri Mormons.[69] The expedition was a disaster; the men were outnumbered and suffered from a cholera outbreak and dissension, so Smith disbanded the expedition.[70] Smith gave a revelation saying that to redeem Zion, his followers must receive an endowment in the Kirtland Temple, then under construction.[71] A white two-story building with a steeple Smith dedicated the Kirtland (Ohio) Temple in 1836. Zion's Camp failed to improve the situation in Jackson County and was viewed as a failure, but it also led to a transformation in Mormon leadership and culture, and many future church leaders would come from the group.[72] Just before Zion's Camp left Kirtland, Smith disbanded the United Order and changed the name of the church to "Church of Latter Day Saints".[73] After the Camp returned, Smith drew heavily from its participants to establish five governing bodies in the church, all originally of equal authority to check one another; among these five groups was a quorum of twelve apostles.[74] The period from 1834 to 1837 was one of relative peace for Smith.[75] The Latter Day Saints built their temple at great cost, and at the temple's dedication in March 1836, they reported that they participated in the prophesied endowment: a scene of visions, angelic visitations, prophesying, speaking and singing in tongues, and other spiritual experiences.[76] After the dedication of the Kirtland temple in late 1837, a series of internal disputes led to the collapse of the Kirtland Mormon community.[77] Smith was blamed for having promoted a church-sponsored bank that failed, and was accused of having a relationship with his serving girl, Fanny Alger.[78] Building the temple had left the church deeply in debt, and Smith was hounded by creditors.[79] After Smith heard about treasure supposedly hidden in Salem, Massachusetts, he traveled there and received a revelation that God had "much treasure in this city".[80] After a month, he returned empty-handed.[81] Smith and other church leaders then set up a joint stock company to act as a quasi-bank, establishing the Kirtland Safety Society in January 1837, which issued bank notes capitalized in part by real estate.[82] Smith invested heavily in the notes and encouraged the Latter Day Saints to buy them, but the bank failed within a month.[83] As a result, the Latter Day Saints in Kirtland suffered intense pressure from debt collectors and severe price volatility. Smith was held responsible for the failure, and there were widespread defections from the church, including many of Smith's closest advisers.[84] After a warrant was issued for Smith's arrest on a charge of banking fraud, Smith and Rigdon fled Kirtland for Missouri on the night of January 12, 1838.[85] Life in Missouri (1838–39) Main articles: Life of Joseph Smith from 1838 to 1839 and 1838 Mormon War After leaving Jackson County, the Latter Day Saints in Missouri established the town of Far West. By 1838, Smith had abandoned plans to redeem Zion in Jackson County, and after Smith and Rigdon arrived in Missouri, Far West became the new Mormon "Zion".[86] In Missouri, the church also received a new name, the "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints", and construction began on a new temple.[87] In the weeks and months after Smith and Rigdon arrived at Far West, thousands of Latter Day Saints followed them from Kirtland.[88] Smith encouraged the settlement of land outside Caldwell County, instituting a settlement in Adam-ondi-Ahman, in Daviess County. During this time, a church council expelled many of the oldest and most prominent leaders of the church, including John Whitmer, David Whitmer, W. W. Phelps, and Oliver Cowdery.[89] These men came to be known collectively as the "dissenters." Smith explicitly approved of the church council's actions in expelling them.[90] Political and religious differences between old Missourians and newly-arriving Mormon settlers continued to provoke tensions between the two groups, much as they had years earlier in Jackson County. By this time, Smith's experiences with mob violence had led him to believe that his faith's survival required greater militancy against anti-Mormons.[91] Around June 1838, recent convert Sampson Avard formed a covert organization called the Danites to intimidate Mormon dissenters and oppose anti-Mormon militia units.[92] While it is unclear how much Smith knew of the Danites' actions, he apparently approved of their activities of which he knew.[93] After Rigdon delivered a sermon which implied that the dissenters had no place among the Mormon community, the Danites took it upon themselves to forcibly expel the dissenters from the county.[94] In a keynote speech at the town's Fourth of July celebration, Rigdon declared that Mormons would no longer tolerate persecutions in Missouri, and spoke of a "war of extermination" to be waged against the mobs should Mormons be attacked.[95] Smith implicitly endorsed the speech.[96] Many non-Mormon residents of Missouri saw Rigdon's oration as a thinly-veiled threat; they produced a flood of anti-Mormon rhetoric in Missouri newspapers, as well as stump speeches during the political campaign leading up to the 1838 Missouri elections.[97] Violence erupted in Daviess County on August 6, 1838, when non-Mormons in Gallatin tried to counteract the growing influence of Mormons by preventing them from voting.[98] Although there were no immediate deaths, the election-day scuffles initiated the 1838 Mormon War, which quickly escalated as non-Mormon vigilantes raided and burned Mormon farms, and Danites and other Mormon forces pillaged non-Mormon towns.[99] Smith's personal role in stoking the violence throughout this period is debated.[100] When Mormons attacked the Missouri state militia at the Battle of Crooked River in an attempt to rescue some captured Mormons, Governor Lilburn Boggs ordered that the Mormons be "exterminated or driven from the state".[101] Before word of this order got out, non-Mormon vigilantes surprised and killed about eighteen Mormons in the Haun's Mill massacre, effectively ending the war.[102] Men are shuffled into a small brick building Smith was held for four months in Liberty jail. On November 1, 1838, the Latter Day Saints surrendered to 2,500 state troops and agreed to forfeit their property and leave the state.[103] Smith was immediately brought before a military court for treason and was nearly executed. However, Smith's legal counsel Alexander Doniphan successfully argued for him to be tried instead as a civilian; in so doing, Doniphan probably saved Smith's life.[104] Smith was then sent to a state court for a preliminary hearing, where several of his former allies testified against him.[105] Smith and five others, including Rigdon, were charged with "overt acts of treason", and transferred to the jail at Liberty, Missouri, to await trial.[106] Smith's months in prison with Rigdon strained their relationship, and Brigham Young, then-president of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, rose in prominence as Smith's defender.[107] Under Young's leadership, about 14,000 Latter Day Saints made their way to Illinois and searched for land to purchase.[108] Smith spent his time in prison writing contemplative statements directed mainly to Mormons.[109] He did not deny responsibility for the Danites, but he said he had been ignorant of Avard's extreme militancy.[110] Many Latter Day Saints now considered Smith a fallen prophet, but he assured them he still had the heavenly keys.[111] He directed them to collect and publish all their stories of persecution, and to moderate their antagonism toward non-Mormons.[112] On April 6, 1839, after a grand jury hearing in Davis County, Smith and his companions escaped custody, perhaps with the guards' assistance, while they were being escorted to Boone County.[113] Life in Nauvoo, Illinois (1839–44) Main article: Life of Joseph Smith from 1839 to 1844 After newspapers throughout the country criticized Missouri for expelling the Mormons, Illinois accepted the refugees gathering along the banks of the Mississippi River.[114] Smith purchased high-priced swampy woodland in the hamlet of Commerce and urged his followers to move there.[115] Promoting the image of the Latter Day Saints as an oppressed minority, he unsuccessfully petitioned the federal government for help in obtaining reparations.[116] In the summer of 1839, the Latter Day Saints in Nauvoo suffered from widespread malaria. Also that summer, Smith sent Brigham Young and other apostles to missions in Europe, where they found willing converts, many of them poor factory workers.[117] On horseback, Smith leads soldiers bearing flags Depiction of Smith at head of the Nauvoo Legion The religion also attracted a few wealthy and influential converts, including John C. Bennett, the Illinois quartermaster general.[118] Bennett used his connections in the Illinois legislature to obtain an unusually liberal charter for the new city, which Smith named "Nauvoo" (Hebrew נָאווּ, meaning "to be beautiful").[119] The charter granted the city virtual autonomy, authorized a university, and granted Nauvoo habeas corpus power—which saved Smith's life by allowing him to fend off extradition to Missouri.[120] Though Mormon authorities controlled Nauvoo's civil government, the city promised an unusually liberal guarantee of religious freedom.[121] The charter also authorized the Nauvoo Legion, an autonomous militia whose actions were limited only by state and federal constitutions. "Lieutenant General" Smith and "Major General" Bennett became its commanders, thereby controlling by far the largest body of armed men in Illinois.[122] Smith made Bennett Assistant President of the church, and Bennett was elected Nauvoo's first mayor.[123] In 1841, Smith began revealing the doctrine of plural marriage to a few of his closest male associates, including Bennett, who began using it as a license for free love.[124] When embarrassing rumors of "spiritual wifery" got abroad, Smith forced Bennett's resignation as Nauvoo mayor. In retaliation, Bennett wrote "lurid exposés of life in Nauvoo".[125] People enter and leave the ornate Nauvoo Temple Smith planned the construction of the Nauvoo Temple, which was completed after his death. The early Nauvoo years were a period of doctrinal innovation. Smith introduced baptism for the dead in 1840, and in 1841, construction began on the Nauvoo Temple as a place for recovering lost ancient knowledge.[126] An 1841 revelation promised the restoration of the "fulness of the priesthood", and in May 1842, Smith inaugurated a revised endowment or "first anointing".[127] The endowment resembled rites of freemasonry that Smith had observed two months earlier when he had been initiated into the Nauvoo Masonic lodge.[128] At first, the endowment was open only to men, who were initiated into the Anointed Quorum. For women, Smith introduced the Relief Society, a service club and sorority within which Smith predicted women would receive "the keys of the kingdom".[129] Smith also elaborated on his plan for a millennial kingdom. No longer envisioning the building of Zion in Nauvoo, Smith viewed Zion as encompassing all of North and South America, with Mormon settlements being "stakes" of Zion's metaphorical tent.[130] Zion also became less a refuge from an impending tribulation than a great building project.[131] In the summer of 1842, Smith revealed a plan to establish the millennial Kingdom of God, which would eventually establish theocratic rule over the whole earth.[132] By mid-1842, popular opinion had turned against the Latter Day Saints. After an unknown assailant shot at Missouri governor Lilburn Boggs in May 1842, anti-Mormons in Illinois reported rumors that Smith had predicted Boggs's death.[133] Circumstantial evidence suggested that the shooter was Smith's bodyguard, Porter Rockwell, who was later tried and acquitted.[134] Nevertheless, Boggs ordered Smith's extradition, and Smith went into hiding, believing that if he went to Missouri he would be murdered.[135] Smith ultimately avoided extradition when a U.S. district attorney for Illinois passed along his opinion that the extradition was unconstitutional.[136] Another extradition attempt was made in June 1843, when Illinois Governor Thomas Ford reluctantly agreed to turn Smith over to Missouri on the old charge of treason. Two Missourian officers arrested Smith, but failed to bring him to Missouri when Smith was released on a writ of habeas corpus.[137] While this ended the Missourians' attempts at extradition, it caused significant political fallout in Illinois.[138] In December 1843, Smith petitioned Congress to make Nauvoo an independent territory with the right to call out federal troops in its defense.[139] Smith then wrote to the leading presidential candidates and asked them what they would do to protect the Mormons. After receiving noncommittal or negative responses, Smith announced his own third-party candidacy for President of the United States, suspended regular proselytizing, and sent out the Quorum of the Twelve and hundreds of other political missionaries.[140] In March 1844, following a dispute with a federal bureaucrat, Smith organized the secret Council of Fifty with authority to decide which national or state laws Mormons should obey.[141] The Council was also to select a site for a large Mormon settlement in Texas, California, or Oregon, where Mormons could live under theocratic law beyond other governmental control.[142] Death Main article: Death of Joseph Smith A 19th-century painting depicting the mob attack inside Carthage Jail By the spring of 1844, a rift developed between Smith and a half dozen of his closest associates.[143] Most notably, William Law, Smith's trusted counselor, and Robert Foster, a general of the Nauvoo Legion, disagreed with Smith about how to manage Nauvoo's economy.[144] Both also said that Smith had proposed marriage to their wives.[145] Believing the dissidents were plotting against his life, Smith excommunicated them on April 18, 1844.[146] These dissidents formed a competing church and the following month, at Carthage, the county seat, they procured indictments against Smith for perjury and polygamy.[147] On June 7, the dissidents published the first (and only) issue of the Nauvoo Expositor, calling for reform within the church and appealing to the political views of the county's anti-Mormons.[148] The paper decried Smith's new "doctrines of many Gods", alluded to Smith's theocratic aspirations, and called for a repeal of the Nauvoo city charter.[149] It also attacked Smith's practice of polygamy, implying that Smith was using religion as a pretext to draw unassuming women to Nauvoo in order to seduce and marry them.[150] Fearing the newspaper would bring the countryside down on the Mormons, the Nauvoo city council declared the Expositor a public nuisance and ordered the Nauvoo Legion to destroy the press.[151] Smith, who feared another mob attack, supported the action, not realizing that suppression of the press would sooner incite an attack than libel would.[152] Smith was shot multiple times before and after falling from the window.[153] Destruction of the newspaper provoked a strident call to arms from Thomas C. Sharp, editor of the Warsaw Signal and longtime critic of Smith.[154] Fearing an uprising, Smith mobilized the Nauvoo Legion on June 18 and declared martial law. Officials in Carthage responded by mobilizing their small detachment of the state militia, and Governor Thomas Ford appeared, threatening to raise a larger militia unless Smith and the Nauvoo city council surrendered themselves.[155] Smith initially fled across the Mississippi River, but shortly returned and surrendered to Ford.[156] On June 23, Smith and his brother Hyrum rode to Carthage to stand trial for inciting a riot.[157] Once the Smiths were in custody, the charges were increased to treason against Illinois.[158] Current gravesite of Joseph, Emma, and Hyrum Smith, in Nauvoo, Illinois. On June 27, 1844, an armed mob with blackened faces stormed Carthage Jail where Joseph and Hyrum were being held. Hyrum, who was trying to secure the door, was killed instantly with a shot to the face. Smith fired a pepper-box pistol that a friend had lent him for self-defense, then sprang for the window.[159] He was shot multiple times before falling out the window, crying, "Oh Lord my God!" He died shortly after hitting the ground, but was shot several times more before the mob dispersed.[160] Five men were later tried for his murder, but all were acquitted.[161] Smith was buried in Nauvoo, and is currently interred there at the Smith Family Cemetery. Throughout his life Smith had been sharply criticized by newspaper editors, and after his death newspapers were almost unanimous in portraying Smith as a religious fanatic, ignoring his accomplishments, and excluding human qualities.[162] Conversely, within Mormonism, Smith was memorialized first and foremost as a prophet, to the point of eclipsing his defects. Legacy Impact Smith attracted thousands of devoted followers before his death in 1844 and millions in the century that followed.[163] Among Mormons, he is regarded as a prophet on par with Moses and Elijah.[164] Mormons and ex-Mormons have produced a large amount of scholarly work about Smith. Interpretations range from viewing Smith as a prophet who restored the true faith,[165] to a "pious fraud" who believed he was called of God to preach repentance, and felt justified inventing visions in order to convert people,[166] to a gifted "mythmaker" who was the product of his Yankee environment.[167] Mormon and non-Mormon biographers alike agree that Smith was one of the most influential, charismatic, and innovative figures in American religious history.[168] Buildings named in honor of Smith The Joseph Smith Memorial Building in Salt Lake City The Joseph Smith Building on the campus of Brigham Young University Smith's teachings and practices aroused considerable antagonism, with newspapers as early as 1829 dismissing him as a fraud (a view still held by many evangelical Christians).[169] He was twice imprisoned for alleged treason, the second time falling victim to an angry mob that stormed the jail.[170] After his death at age thirty eight, his followers believed he had died as a martyr to seal the testimony of his faith.[171] Smith himself made no claims to perfection, comparing himself to a "rough stone" that lacked polish.[172] Memorials to Smith include the Joseph Smith Memorial Building in Salt Lake City, Utah, the Joseph Smith Building on the campus of Brigham Young University, and a granite obelisk marking his birth place. Additionally, in 2005, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints produced a film based on Smith's life titled Joseph Smith: The Prophet of the Restoration. Religious denominations See also: Succession crisis (Latter Day Saints) and List of sects in the Latter Day Saint movement Smith's death resulted in a succession crisis.[173] Smith had proposed several ways to choose his successor, but had never clarified his preference.[174] Smith's brother Hyrum, had he survived, would have had the strongest claim, followed by Smith's brother Samuel, who died mysteriously a month after his brothers.[175] Another brother, William, was unable to attract a sufficient following.[176] Smith's sons Joseph III and David also had claims, but Joseph III was too young and David was yet unborn.[177] The Council of Fifty had a theoretical claim to succession, but it was a secret organization.[178] Some of Smith's chosen successors, such as Oliver Cowdery and David Whitmer, had left the church.[179] The two strongest succession candidates were Brigham Young, senior member and president of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, and Sidney Rigdon, the senior member of the First Presidency. In a church-wide conference on August 8, most of the Latter Day Saints elected Young, who led them to the Utah Territory as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.[180] Membership in Young's denomination surpassed 14 million members in 2010.[181] Smaller groups followed Sidney Rigdon and James J. Strang, who had based his claim on an allegedly-forged letter of appointment.[182] Others followed Lyman Wight and Alpheus Cutler.[183] Many members of these smaller groups, including most of Smith's family, eventually coalesced in 1860 under the leadership of Joseph Smith III and formed what was known for more than a century as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (now Community of Christ), which now has about 250,000 members. As of 2013, members of the denominations originating from Smith's teachings number approximately 15 million.[184] Family and descendants Portrait of Emma Smith Emma Hale Smith married Joseph Smith in 1827. See also: List of the wives of Joseph Smith and Children of Joseph Smith Smith's wife Emma Hale gave birth to nine children during the course of their marriage, five of whom died before the age of two. The first, Alvin (born in 1828), died within hours of birth, as did twins Thaddeus and Louisa (born in 1831). When the twins died, the Smiths adopted another set of twins, Julia and Joseph, whose mother had recently died in childbirth; Joseph died of measles in 1832.[185] In 1841, Don Carlos, who had been born a year earlier, died of malaria. In 1842, Emma gave birth to a stillborn son. Joseph and Emma had four sons who lived to maturity: Joseph Smith III, Frederick Granger Williams Smith, Alexander Hale Smith, and David Hyrum Smith (born in 1844 after Smith's death).[186] As of 2013, DNA testing had provided no evidence that Smith had fathered any children by women other than Emma.[187] Throughout her life, Emma Smith frequently denied that her husband had ever taken additional wives.[188] Emma said that the very first time she ever became aware of a polygamy revelation being attributed to Smith by Mormons was when she read about it in Orson Pratt's periodical The Seer in 1853.[189] Emma campaigned publicly against polygamy, and was the main signatory of a petition in 1842, with a thousand female signatures, denying that Smith was connected with polygamy. As president of the Ladies' Relief Society, Emma authorized publishing a certificate in the same year denouncing polygamy, and denying her husband as its creator or participant.[190] Even on her deathbed, Emma denied Joseph's involvement with polygamy, stating, "No such thing as polygamy, or spiritual wifery, was taught, publicly or privately, before my husband's death, that I have now, or ever had any knowledge of ... He had no other wife but me; nor did he to my knowledge ever have".[191] After Smith's death, Emma Smith quickly became alienated from Brigham Young and the church leadership.[192] Young, whom Emma feared and despised, was suspicious of her desire to preserve the family's assets from inclusion with those of the church, and thought she would be even more troublesome because she openly opposed plural marriage.[193] When most Latter Day Saints moved west, she stayed in Nauvoo, married a non-Mormon, Major Lewis C. Bidamon,[194] and withdrew from religion until 1860, when she affiliated with the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, first headed by her son, Joseph Smith III. Emma never denied Smith's prophetic gift or repudiated her belief in the authenticity of the Book of Mormon.[195] Revelations An artistic representation of the golden plates with the Urim and Thummim connected to a breastplate, based on descriptions by Smith and others According to Richard Bushman, the "signal feature" of Smith's life was "his sense of being guided by revelation". Instead of presenting ideas with logical arguments, Smith dictated authoritative revelations and let people decide whether or not to believe.[196] Smith's teachings came primarily through his revelations, which read like scripture: oracular and open to interpretation. Smith and his followers viewed his revelations as being above teachings or opinions, and Smith's actions seemed to indicate that he believed in his revelations as much as his most loyal followers.[197] Smith's first recorded revelation was a rebuke from God for having let Martin Harris lose 116 pages of Book of Mormon manuscript, chastising him for "fearing man more than God".[198] The revelation was given in the voice of God, and Smith, as a speaker, was absent from the revelation. Subsequent revelations would take on a similar authoritative style, often opening with words like "Hearken O ye people which profess my name, saith the Lord your God."[199] Book of Mormon Main article: Book of Mormon The Book of Mormon has been called the longest and most complex of Smith's revelations.[200] It is organized as a compilation of smaller books, each named after its main named narrator or a prominent leader. It tells the story of the rise and fall of a religious civilization beginning around 600 BC and ending in 421 AD.[201] The story begins with a family that leaves Jerusalem, just before the Babylonian captivity.[202] They eventually construct a ship and sail to a "promised land" in the Western Hemisphere.[203] There, they are divided into two factions: Nephites and Lamanites. The Nephites become a righteous people who build a temple and live the law of Moses, though their prophets teach a Christian gospel. The book explains itself to be largely the work of Mormon, a Nephite prophet and military figure. The book closes when Mormon's son, Moroni, finishes engraving and buries the records written on the golden plates.[204] Christian themes permeate the work; for instance, Nephite prophets in the Book of Mormon teach of Christ's coming, and talk of the star that will appear at his birth.[205] After the crucifixion and resurrection in Jerusalem, Jesus appears in the Americas, repeats the Sermon on the Mount, blesses children, and appoints twelve disciples. The book ends with Moroni's exhortation to "come unto Christ".[206] Early Mormons understood the Book of Mormon to be a religious history of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Smith's followers view it as a companion to the Bible and an additional witness of Christ, akin to a large apocryphal work.[207] Modern historian Fawn Brodie has called the Book of Mormon a response to pressing cultural and environmental issues of Smith's times, saying that Smith composed the Book of Mormon drawing from scraps of information available to him; Dan Vogel, another historian, says that the work is autobiographical in nature.[208] Smith sitting on a wooden chair with his face in a hat According to some accounts Smith dictated most of the Book of Mormon by looking into a seer stone placed in a stovepipe hat. Smith never said how he produced the Book of Mormon, saying only that he translated by the power of God and implying that he had transcribed the words.[209] The Book of Mormon itself states only that its text will "come forth by the gift and power of God unto the interpretation thereof".[210] As such, considerable disagreement about the actual method used exists. For at least some of the earliest dictation, Smith is said to have used the "Urim and Thummim", a pair of seer stones he said were buried with the plates.[211] Later, however, he is said to have used a chocolate-colored stone he had found in 1822 that he had used previously for treasure hunting.[212] Joseph Knight said that Smith saw the words of the translation while he gazed at the stone or stones in the bottom of his hat, excluding all light, a process similar to divining the location of treasure.[213] Sometimes, Smith concealed the process by raising a curtain or dictating from another room, while at other times he dictated in full view of witnesses while the plates lay covered on the table.[214] After completing the translation, Smith gave the brown stone to Cowdery, but continued to receive revelations using another stone until about 1833 when he said he no longer needed it.[215] The Book of Mormon drew many converts to the church, but as Brodie noted, "The book lives today because of the prophet, not he because of the book."[216] Smith had assumed a role as prophet, seer, and apostle of Jesus Christ, and by early 1831, he was introducing himself as "Joseph the Prophet".[217] The language of authority in Smith's revelations was appealing to converts, and the revelations were given with the confidence of an Old Testament prophet.[218] Moses and Abraham Main articles: Book of Abraham and Book of Moses Smith said that in June 1830, he received a "revelation of Moses" in which Moses saw "the world and the ends thereof" and asked God questions about the purpose of creation and man's relationship to God. This revelation initiated a revision of the Bible on which Smith worked sporadically until 1833 and which remained unpublished at his death.[219] Smith said that he believed the Bible had been corrupted through the ages, and that his revision worked to restore the original intent; it added long passages rewritten "according to his inspiration".[220] While many changes involved straightening out seeming contradictions or making small clarifications, other changes added large "lost" portions to the text.[221] For instance, Smith's revision nearly tripled the length of the first five chapters of Genesis in what would become the Book of Moses.[222] The Book of Moses begins with Moses' inquiring of God as to the purpose of creation, and is told in this account that God made the earth and heavens to bring humans to eternal life. The book also provides an enlarged account of the Genesis creation narrative and expands the story of Enoch, the ancestor of Noah. In the narrative, Enoch speaks with God, receives a prophetic calling, and eventually builds a city of Zion so righteous that it was taken to heaven.[223] The book also elaborates and expands upon foreshadowing and "types" of Christ, in effect Christianizing the Old Testament.[224] In 1835 Smith encouraged some Latter Day Saints in Kirtland to purchase rolls of ancient Egyptian papyri from a traveling exhibitor. Over the next several years, Smith worked off and on as events allowed, to produce a supposed translation of one of these rolls, which he published in 1842 as the Book of Abraham.[225] The Book of Abraham speaks of the founding of the Abrahamic nation, astronomy, cosmology, lineage and priesthood, and gave another account of the creation story.[226] The papyri from which Smith dictated the Book of Abraham were thought to have been lost in the Great Chicago Fire, but several fragments were rediscovered in the 1960s, and translated by modern Egyptologists. It was determined that the rediscovered portions bore no apparent relation to the Book of Abraham text; this discrepancy has been a source of controversy ever since.[citation needed] Other revelations See also: Book of Commandments and Doctrine and Covenants [The Holy Spirit] may give you sudden strokes of ideas, so that by noticing it, you may find it fulfilled the same day or soon; those things that were presented unto your minds by the Spirit of God, will come to pass. Joseph Smith [227] According to Parley P. Pratt, Smith dictated revelations orally, and they were recorded by a scribe without revisions or corrections.[228] Revelations were immediately copied, and then circulated among church members. Smith's revelations often came in response to specific questions. He described the revelatory process as having "pure Intelligence" flowing into him. Smith, however, never viewed the wording to be infallible. The revelations were not God's words verbatim, but "couched in language suitable to Joseph's time".[229] In 1833 Smith edited and expanded many of the previous revelations, publishing them as the Book of Commandments, which later became part of the Doctrine and Covenants.[230] Smith gave varying types of revelations. Some were temporal, while others were spiritual or doctrinal; some were received for a specific individual, while others were directed at the whole church. Notable revelations include an 1831 revelation called "The Law" containing directions for missionary work, rules for organizing society in Zion, a reiteration of the Ten Commandments, an injunction to "administer to the poor and needy", and an outline for the Law of consecration.[231] An 1832 revelation called "The Vision" added to the fundamentals of sin and atonement, introduced doctrines of life after salvation, the theme of Exaltation, and a heaven with degrees of glory.[232] Another 1832 revelation "on Priesthood" was the first to explain priesthood doctrine.[233] Three months later, Smith gave a lengthy revelation called the "Olive Leaf" containing themes of cosmology and eschatology, and discussing subjects such as light, truth, intelligence, and sanctification, and a related revelation given in 1833 put Christ at the center of salvation.[234] Also in 1833, at a time of temperance agitation, Smith gave a revelation called the "Word of Wisdom," which counseled a diet of wholesome herbs, fruits, grains, a sparing use of meat, and recommended that Latter Day Saints avoid "strong" alcoholic drinks, tobacco, and "hot drinks" (later interpreted to mean tea and coffee).[235] The Word of Wisdom was not originally framed as a commandment, but a recommendation. As such, Smith and other Latter Day Saints did not strictly follow this counsel, though it later became a requirement in the LDS Church.[236] In 1835 Smith gave the "great revelation" that organized the priesthood into quorums and councils, and served as a complex blueprint for church structure.[237] Smith's last revelation on the "New and Everlasting Covenant" was recorded in 1843, and dealt with the theology of family, the doctrine of sealing, and plural marriage.[238] Before 1832, most of Smith's revelations dealt with establishing the church, gathering his followers, and building the City of Zion, while later revelations dealt with the priesthood, endowment, and exaltation.[239] The revelations slowed in Kirtland during the autumn of 1833, and again after the dedication of the Kirtland Temple, as Smith relied more heavily on his own teachings.[240] Smith moved away from written revelations opening with "verily thus saith the Lord" and taught more in sermons, conversations, and letters.[241] For instance, the doctrines of baptism for the dead and the nature of God were introduced in sermons, and one of Smith's most famed statements about there being "no such thing as immaterial matter" was recorded from a casual conversation with a Methodist preacher.[242] Views and teachings Main article: Teachings of Joseph Smith Two heavenly beings stand in the air conversing with the young Smith Smith's later theology described Jesus and God the Father as two distinct physical beings. Cosmology and theology See also: Mormon cosmology and Godhead (Latter Day Saints) Smith taught that all existence was material, including a world of "spirit matter" so fine that it was invisible to all but the purest mortal eyes.[243] Matter, in Smith's view, could neither be created nor destroyed; the creation involved only the reorganization of existing matter. Like matter, Smith saw "intelligence" as co-eternal with God, and taught that human spirits had been drawn from a pre-existent pool of eternal intelligences.[244] Nevertheless, spirits could not experience a "fullness of joy" unless joined with corporeal bodies, according to Smith. The work and glory of God, then, was to create worlds across the cosmos where inferior intelligences could be embodied.[245] Though Smith initially viewed God the Father as a spirit,[246] he eventually began teaching that God was an advanced and glorified man,[247] embodied within time and space.[248] By the end of his life, Smith was teaching that both God the Father and Jesus were distinct beings with physical bodies, but the Holy Spirit was a "personage of Spirit".[249] Through the gradual acquisition of knowledge, according to Smith, those who received exaltation could eventually become like God.[250] These teachings implied a vast hierarchy of gods, with God himself having a father.[251] In Smith's cosmology, those who became gods would reign, unified in purpose and will, leading spirits of lesser capacity to share immortality and eternal life.[252] In Smith's view, the opportunity to achieve exaltation extended to all humanity; those who died with no opportunity to accept saving ordinances could achieve exaltation by accepting them in the afterlife through ordinances performed on their behalf.[253] Smith said that children who died in their innocence would be guaranteed to rise at the resurrection and receive exaltation. Apart from those who committed the eternal sin, Smith taught that even the wicked and disbelieving would achieve a degree of glory in the afterlife.[254] Religious authority and ritual See also: Priesthood (Latter Day Saints), Freemasonry and the Latter Day Saint movement and Endowment (Latter Day Saints) Smith's teachings were rooted in dispensational restorationism.[255] He taught that the Church of Christ restored through him was a latter-day restoration of the early Christian faith, which had been lost in the Great Apostasy.[256] At first, Smith's church had little sense of hierarchy; his religious authority was derived from visions and revelations.[257] Though Smith did not claim exclusive prophethood, an early revelation designated him as the only prophet allowed to issue commandments "as Moses".[258] This religious authority encompassed economic and political as well as spiritual matters. For instance, in the early 1830s, he temporarily instituted a form of religious communism, called the United Order, that required Latter Day Saints to give all their property to the church, which was divided among the faithful.[259] He also envisioned that the theocratic institutions he established would have a role in the worldwide political organization of the Millennium.[260] By the mid-1830s, Smith began teaching a hierarchy of three priesthoods—the Melchizedek, the Aaronic, and the Patriarchal.[261] Each priesthood was a continuation of biblical priesthoods through patrilineal succession or ordination by biblical figures appearing in visions.[262] Upon introducing the Melchizedek or "High" Priesthood in 1831, Smith taught that its recipients would be "endowed with power from on high", thus fulfilling a need for a greater holiness and an authority commensurate with the New Testament apostles.[263] This doctrine of endowment evolved through the 1830s, until in 1842, the Nauvoo endowment included an elaborate ceremony containing elements similar to Freemasonry and the Jewish tradition of Kabbalah.[264] The endowment was extended to women in 1843, though Smith never clarified whether women could be ordained to priesthood offices.[265] Smith taught that the High Priesthood's endowment of heavenly power included the sealing powers of Elijah, allowing High Priests to effect binding consequences in the afterlife.[266] For example, this power would enable proxy baptisms for the dead and priesthood marriages that would be effective into the afterlife.[267] Elijah's sealing powers also enabled the second anointing, or "fulness [sic] of the priesthood", which, according to Smith, sealed married couples to their exaltation.[268] Theology of family During the early 1840s, Smith unfolded a theology of family relations called the "New and Everlasting Covenant" that superseded all earthly bonds.[269] He taught that outside the Covenant, marriages were simply matters of contract, and that in the afterlife individuals married outside the Covenant or not married would be limited in their progression.[270] To fully enter the Covenant, a man and woman must participate in a "first anointing", a "sealing" ceremony, and a "second anointing" (also called "sealing by the Holy Spirit of Promise").[271] When fully sealed into the Covenant, Smith said that no sin nor blasphemy (other than the eternal sin) could keep them from their exaltation in the afterlife.[272] According to Smith, only one person on earth at a time—in this case, Smith—could possess this power of sealing.[273] A painting of Smith, by Bathsheba W. Smith, created circa 1843. Smith taught that the highest level of exaltation could be achieved through "plural marriage" (polygamy), which was the ultimate manifestation of this New and Everlasting Covenant.[274] Plural marriage, according to Smith, allowed an individual to transcend the angelic state and become a god, accelerating the expansion of one's heavenly kingdom.[275] Joseph Smith, Jr. (December 23, 1805 – June 27, 1844) was an American religious leader who founded the Latter Day Saint movement, the predominant branch of which is Mormonism. At age twenty-four, Smith published the Book of Mormon, and by the time of his death fourteen years later, he had attracted tens of thousands of followers, established cities and temples, and founded a religion and a religious culture that continues to the present day. Smith was born in Sharon, Vermont, and by 1817 had moved with his family to western New York, then the site of intense religious revivalism as part of the Second Great Awakening. There, according to Smith, he saw and heard a series of visions beginning in the early 1820s; in the first of these visions "two personages" (implied to be God the Father and the Son) appeared to him, and in subsequent visions an angel directed Smith to a buried book of golden plates inscribed with a Judeo-Christian history of an ancient American civilization. In 1830, Smith published what he said was an English translation of these plates, titled the Book of Mormon. Also in 1830, he organized the Church of Christ, calling it a restoration of the early Christian church. Church members were later called "Latter Day Saints", or "Mormons". In 1831, Smith and his followers moved west with plans to build a communalistic American Zion. They gathered in Kirtland, Ohio, and established an outpost in Independence, Missouri, which was intended to be Zion's "center place". During the 1830s, Smith sent out missionaries, published revelations, and supervised construction of an expensive temple. However, due to the collapse of a church-sponsored bank and violent skirmishes with angry non-Mormon Missourians, Smith's dreams of building Zion in Missouri and Ohio failed by the end of the decade. In the early 1840s, Smith established a new city called Nauvoo, Illinois, where he was a spiritual and political leader. In 1844, Smith and the Nauvoo city council angered non-Mormons by ordering a printing press destroyed after it was used to publish an exposé critical of Smith's power and practice of polygamy.[5] During the ensuing controversy, Smith was imprisoned in Carthage, Illinois, and killed when a mob stormed the jailhouse. During his lifetime, Smith published many revelations and other texts that his followers regard as scripture. His teachings include unique views about the nature of God, cosmology, family structures, political organization, and religious collectivism. His followers regard him as a prophet comparable to Moses and Elijah, while detractors view him as a false prophet or religious impostor. Smith's legacy includes several religious denominations, the largest of which are The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Community of Christ. |
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