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Economic__Main article: Economic anthropology Economic anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cultural scope. It has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics, of which it is highly critical. Its origins as a sub-field of anthropology begin with the Polish-British founder of Anthropology, Bronislaw Malinowski, and his French compatriot, Marcel Mauss, on the nature of gift-giving exchange (or reciprocity) as an alternative to market exchange. Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange. The school of thought derived from Marx and known as Political Economy focuses on production, in contrast.[28] Economic Anthropologists have abandoned the primitivist niche they were relegated to by economists, and have now turned to examine corporations, banks, and the global financial system from an anthropological perspective. Political economy__Main article: Political economy in anthropology Political economy in anthropology is the application of the theories and methods of Historical Materialism to the traditional concerns of anthropology, including, but not limited to, non-capitalist societies. Political Economy introduced questions of history and colonialism to ahistorical anthropological theories of social structure and culture. Three main areas of interest rapidly developed. The first of these areas was concerned with the "pre-capitalist" societies that were subject to evolutionary "tribal" stereotypes. Sahlins work on Hunter-gatherers as the 'original affluent society' did much to dissipate that image. The second area was concerned with the vast majority of the world's population at the time, the peasantry, many of whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such as in Vietnam. The third area was on colonialism, imperialism, and the creation of the capitalist world-system.[29] More recently, these Political Economists have more directly addressed issues of industrial (and post-industrial) capitalism around the world. Applied__Main article: Applied anthropology Applied Anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. It is a, "complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy".[30] More simply, applied anthropology is the practical side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community. It is closely related to Development anthropology (distinct from the more critical Anthropology of development). Development__Main article: anthropology of development Anthropology of development tends to view development from a critical perspective. The kind of issues addressed and implications for the approach involve asking why, if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty, is poverty increasing? Why is there such a gap between plans and outcomes? Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer? Why is development so externally driven rather than having an internal basis? In short why does so much planned development fail? Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality__Part of a series on the Anthropology of kinship Basic concepts[show]Kinship Affinity · Consanguinity · Marriage · Incest taboo · Endogamy · Exogamy · monogamy · Polygyny · Polygamy · Polyandry · Bride service · Bride price · Dowry · Parallel / cross cousins · Cousin marriage · Levirate · Ghost marriage · Joking relationship · Family · Lineage · ClanFictive kinship · Milk kinshipDescent Cognatic / BilateralMatrilateralHouse societyAmbi- / Uni- / Matri- / Patri-linealityAvunculateHousehold forms and residence Extended · Matrifocal · Matrilocal · Nuclear · PatrilocalGender Third gender Kinship terminology[show]Kinship terminologyClassificatory terminologiesIroquois · Crow · Omaha · Eskimo · Hawaiian · Sudanese · Dravidian Case studies[show]Kinship Australian Aboriginal · Burmese · Chinese · Philippine · Polyandry in Tibet / in IndiaGender Mosuo matrilinealityChambri (female-dominant)Hijra (third-gender)Sexuality Coming of age in Samoa Major theorists[show]Diane Bell · Tom Boellstorff · Jack Goody · Gilbert Herdt · Don Kulick · Roger Lancaster · Louise Lamphere · Eleanor Leacock · Claude Lévi-Strauss · Bronisław Malinowski · Margaret Mead · Henrietta Moore · Lewis H. Morgan · Stephen O. Murray · Michelle Rosaldo · David M. Schneider · Marilyn Strathern Related articles[show]Alliance theoryMatrilineal / matrilocal societiesFeminist anthropologySex and Repression in Savage Society Social and cultural anthropology v · t · e Kinship__Main article: Kinship Kinship can refer both to the study of the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures, or it can refer to the patterns of social relationships themselves. Over its history, anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms, such as descent, descent groups, lineages, affines, cognates and even fictive kinship. Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related both by descent (one's social relations during development), and also relatives by marriage. Feminist__Main article: Feminist anthropology Feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology (archeological, biological, cultural, linguistic) that seeks to reduce male bias in research findings, anthropological hiring practices, and the scholarly production of knowledge. Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white European and American feminists. Historically, such 'peripheral' perspectives have sometimes been marginalized and regarded as less valid or important than knowledge from the western world. Feminist anthropologists have claimed that their research helps to correct this systematic bias in mainstream feminist theory. Feminist anthropologists are centrally concerned with the construction of gender across societies. Feminist anthropology is inclusive of birth anthropology as a specialization. Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal__Part of a series on Medical and psychological anthropology Basic concepts[show]Health · Culture-bound syndrome · Double bind Case studies[show]Navajo medicine Related articles[show]Nutritional anthropology · Psychological anthropology · Cognitive anthropology · Transpersonal anthropology · Ethnomedicine · Clinical ethnography · Critical medical anthropology · Cross-cultural psychiatry · Person-centered ethnography · Society for Medical Anthropology · National character studies · Syndemic Major theorists[show]Gregory Bateson · Maurice Bloch · Charles L. Briggs · Veena Das · George Devereux · Cora DuBois · Paul Farmer · Michael M. J. Fischer · Arthur Kleinman · Charles Laughlin · Robert I. Levy · Ralph Linton · Tanya Luhrmann · Marvin Opler · Michelle Rosaldo · Nancy Scheper-Hughes · Richard Shweder · Merrill Singer · Dan Sperber · Melford Spiro · Beatrice Whiting · John Whiting Journals[show]Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry · Medical Anthropology Quarterly · Anthropology of Consciousness Social and cultural anthropology v · t · e Medical__Main article: Medical anthropology Medical anthropology is an interdisciplinary field which studies "human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation".[31] Currently, research in medical anthropology is one of the main growth areas in the field of anthropology as a whole. It focuses on the following six basic fields:[citation needed] the development of systems of medical knowledge and medical care the patient-physician relationship the integration of alternative medical systems in culturally diverse environments the interaction of social, environmental and biological factors which influence health and illness both in the individual and the community as a whole the critical analysis of interaction between psychiatric services and migrant populations ("critical ethnopsychiatry": Beneduce 2004, 2007) the impact of biomedicine and biomedical technologies in non-Western settings Other subjects that have become central to medical anthropology worldwide are violence and social suffering (Farmer, 1999, 2003; Beneduce, 2010) as well as other issues that involve physical and psychological harm and suffering that are not a result of illness. On the other hand, there are fields that intersect with medical anthropology in terms of research methodology and theoretical production, such as cultural psychiatry and transcultural psychiatry or ethnopsychiatry. Nutritional__Main article: Nutritional anthropology Nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between economic systems, nutritional status and food security, and how changes in the former affect the latter. If economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food, food security, and dietary health, then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and economic trends associated with globalization. Nutritional status affects overall health status, work performance potential, and the overall potential for economic development (either in terms of human development or traditional western models) for any given group of people. Psychological__Main article: Psychological anthropology Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of cultural and mental processes. This subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans' development and enculturation within a particular cultural group—with its own history, language, practices, and conceptual categories—shape processes of human cognition, emotion, perception, motivation, and mental health. It also examines how the understanding of cognition, emotion, motivation, and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes.[32][33] Cognitive__Main article: Cognitive anthropology Cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge, cultural innovation, and transmission over time and space using the methods and theories of the cognitive sciences (especially experimental psychology and evolutionary biology) often through close collaboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists, linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and interpretation of cultural forms. Cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them.[34] Transpersonal__Main article: Transpersonal anthropology Transpersonal anthropology studies the relationship between altered states of consciousness and culture. As with transpersonal psychology, the field is much concerned with altered states of consciousness (ASC) and transpersonal experience. However, the field differs from mainstream transpersonal psychology in taking more cognizance of cross-cultural issues—for instance, the roles of myth, ritual, diet, and texts in evoking and interpreting extraordinary experiences (Young and Goulet 1994). Political and legal__Part of a series on Political and legal anthropology Basic concepts[show]Status and rankAscribed status · Achieved status · Social status · Caste · Age grade/Age set · Leveling mechanismLeadershipBig man · Matriarchy · Patriarchy · Pantribal sodalities · Chief · Paramount chiefPolitiesBand society · Segmentary lineage · Tribe · Chiefdom · House society · Ethnic group · Theatre statelaw and customCustomary law · Legal culture Case studies[show]Acephelous:Societies without hierarchical leadersAfrican Political Systems · Papuan Big man system · The Art of Not Being GovernedState:Non-western state systemsNegara · MandalaTechnology, Tradition, and the State in AfricaLegal systemsKapuColonialism and resistanceEurope and the People Without History · Cargo cult Related articles[show]Circumscription theory · Legal anthropology · Left right paradigm · State formation · Political Economy · Network Analysis and Ethnographic Problems Major theorists[show]E. Adamson Hoebel · Georges Balandier · F.G. Bailey · Fredrik Barth · Jeremy Boissevain · Robert Carneiro · Henri J. M. Claessen · Jean Comaroff · John Comaroff · Pierre Clastres · E. E. Evans-Pritchard · Wolfgang Fikentscher · Meyer Fortes · Morton Fried · Ernest Gellner · Lesley Gill · Ulf Hannerz · Thomas Blom Hansen · Ted C. Lewellen · Edmund Leach · Ralph Linton · Elizabeth Mertz · Sidney Mintz · Sally Falk Moore · Rodney Needham · Marshall Sahlins · James C. Scott · Elman Service · Aidan Southall · Jonathan Spencer · Bjorn Thomassen · Douglas R. White · Eric Wolf Social and cultural anthropology v · t · e Political__Main article: Political anthropology Political anthropology concerns the structure of political systems, looked at from the basis of the structure of societies. Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more "complex" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena. The turn towards complex societies meant that political themes were taken up at two main levels. First of all, anthropologists continued to study political organization and political phenomena that lay outside the state-regulated sphere (as in patron-client relations or tribal political organization). Second of all, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and of course on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions). An anthropology of the state developed, and it is a most thriving field today. Geertz' comparative work on "Negara", the Balinese state is an early, famous example. Legal__Main article: Legal anthropology Legal anthropology, also known as Anthropology of Law specializes in "the cross-cultural study of social ordering".[35] Earlier legal anthropological research often focused more narrowly on conflict management, crime, sanctions, or formal regulation. More recent applications include issues such as Human Rights, Legal pluralism, Islamaphobia[36][37] and Political Uprisings. Public__Main article: Public anthropology Public Anthropology was created by Robert Borofsky, a professor at Hawaii Pacific University, to "demonstrate the ability of anthropology and anthropologists to effectively address problems beyond the discipline - illuminating larger social issues of our times as well as encouraging broad, public conversations about them with the explicit goal of fostering social change" (Borofsky 2004). |
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