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Society throughout Europe was disturbed by the dislocations caused by the Black Death. Lands that had been marginally productive were abandoned, as the survivors were able to acquire more fertile areas.[261] Although serfdom declined in Western Europe it became more common in Eastern Europe, as landlords imposed it on those of their tenants who had previously been free.[262] Most peasants in Western Europe managed to change the work they had previously owed to their landlords into cash rents.[263] The percentage of serfs amongst the peasantry declined from a high of 90 to closer to 50 per cent by the end of the period.[161] Landlords also became more conscious of common interests with other landholders, and joined together to extort privileges from their governments. Partly at the urging of landlords, governments attempted to legislate a return to the economic conditions that existed before the Black Death.[263] Non-clergy became increasingly literate, and urban populations began to imitate the nobility's interest in chivalry.[264] Jewish communities were expelled from England in 1290, and from France in 1306. Although some were allowed back into France, most were not, and many Jews emigrated eastwards, settling in Poland and Hungary.[265] The Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, and dispersed to Turkey, France, Italy, and Holland.[73] The rise of banking in Italy during the 13th century continued throughout the 14th century, fuelled partly by the increasing warfare of the period and the needs of the papacy to move money between kingdoms. Many of the banking firms loaned money to royalty, at great risk, as some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on their loans.[266][AE] |
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