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Paleo-Indian period 10,000–3500 BCE Main article: History of Mesoamerica (Paleo-Indian) The Paleo-Indian (less frequently, Lithic) period or era is that which spans from the first signs of human presence in the region, to the establishment of agriculture and other practices (e.g. pottery, permanent settlements) and subsistence techniques characteristic of proto-civilizations. In Mesoamerica, the termination of this phase and its transition into the succeeding Archaic period may generally be reckoned at between 10,000 and 8000 BCE, although this dating is approximate only and different timescales may be used between fields and sub-regions. Archaic Era ca. 3500-2000 BCE During the Archaic Era agriculture was developed in the region and permanent villages were established. Late in this era, use of pottery and loom weaving became common, and class divisions began to appear. Many of the basic technologies of Mesoamerica in terms of stone-grinding, drilling, pottery etc. were established during this period. Preclassic Era or Formative Period 1800 BCE–200 CE The Preclassic Era or the Formative Period saw the rise of large-scale ceremonial architecture, writing, cities, and states. Many of the distinctive elements of Mesoamerican civilization can be traced back to this period, including the dominance of corn, the building of pyramids, human sacrifice, jaguar-worship, the complex calendar, and many of the gods.[1] During this period, the Olmec civilization developed and flourished at such sites as La Venta and San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, the Zapotec arose in the Valley of Oaxaca, the Teotihuacan civilization arose in the Valley of Mexico, and the Maya civilization began its development in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in modern-day Chiapas and from there expanded into Guatemala and the Yucatán Peninsula.[2][3][4] Classic Era 200–1000 CE The Classic Era is so called because it saw the development and spread of highly sophisticated arts in the realm of stuccowork, architecture, sculptural reliefs, mural painting, pottery, lapidary etc. It was a time when regional differences between cultures grew more manifest. The Classic era was dominated by numerous independent city-states in the Maya region and also featured the beginnings of political unity in central Mexico and the Yucatán. The city-state of Teotihuacan dominated the Valley of Mexico until the early 8th century, but we know little of the political structure of the region because the Teotihuacaners left no written records. The city-state of Monte Albán dominated the Valley of Oaxaca until the late Classic, leaving limited records in their mostly undeciphered script. In the Maya region, numerous city states such as Tikal, Calakmul, Copán, Palenque, Uxmal, Cobá, and Caracol reached their zeniths. Each of these polities was generally independent, although they often formed alliances and sometimes became vassal states of each other. The main conflict during this period was between Tikal and Calakmul, who fought a series of wars over the course of more than half a millennium. Each of these states declined during the Terminal Classic and were eventually abandoned. In the early 20th century, the term "Old Empire" was sometimes given to this era of Maya civilization in an analogy to Ancient Egypt; the term is now considered inaccurate and has long been out of use by serious writers on the subject.[citation needed] Postclassic Era 1000–1697 CE The Postclassic Era saw the collapse of many of the great nations and cities of the Classic Era, although some continued, such as in Oaxaca, Cholula, and the Maya of Yucatán, such as at Chichen Itza and Uxmal. This is sometimes seen as a period of increased chaos and warfare. The Postclassic is often viewed as a period of cultural decline. However, it was a time of technological advancement in areas of architecture, engineering and weaponry. Metallurgy (introduced c.800 ad) came into use for jewelry and some tools, with new alloys and techniques being developed in a few centuries. The Postclassic saw rapid movement and growth of population - especially in Central Mexico post-1200 AD. It was also a time of experimentation in governance. For instance, in Yucatán, 'dual rulership' apparently replaced the more theocratic governments of Classic times, whilst oligarchic councils now operated in much of Central Mexico. Likewise, it appears that the wealthy pochteca (merchant class) and military orders became more powerful than was apparently the case in Classic times. This afforded some Mesoamericans a degree of social mobility. The Toltec for a time dominated central Mexico in the 11th–13th century, then collapsed. The northern Maya were for a time united under Mayapan. Equally, Oaxaca was briefly united by Mixtec rulers in the 11th–12th centuries. The Aztec Empire arose in the early 15th century and appeared to be on a path to asserting a dominance over the Valley of Mexico region not seen since Teotihuacan, when Mesoamerica was discovered by Spain and conquered by the conquistadores and a large number of native allies. By the 1400s, the Mayan 'revival' in Yucatán and southern Guatemala, and the flourishing of Aztec imperialism evidently enabled a renaissance of fine arts and science. Examples include the 'Pueblan-Mexica' style in pottery, codex illumination and goldwork, the flourishing of Nahua poetry, and the botanical institutes established by the Aztec elite. The late florescence of the northern Maya has been sometimes called the "New Empire" in the early 20th century, but this term is no longer considered appropriate and is no longer used.[citation needed] Arguably, the Post-Classic continued until the conquest of the last independent native state of Mesoamerica, Tayasal, in 1697. Period Timespan Important cultures, cities Summary of the Chronology and Cultures of Mesoamerica Paleo-Indian 10,000–3500 BCE Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, obsidian and pyrite points, Iztapan, Archaic 3500–2000 BCE Agricultural settlements, Tehuacán Preclassic (Formative) 2000 BCE–250 CE Unknown culture in La Blanca and Ujuxte, Monte Alto culture, Mokaya culture Early Preclassic 2000 BCE–1000 BCE Olmec area: San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán; Central Mexico: Chalcatzingo; Valley of Oaxaca: San José Mogote. The Maya area: Nakbe, Cerros Middle Preclassic 950 BCE–400 BCE Olmec area: La Venta, Tres Zapotes; Zoque area: Chiapa de Corzo; Maya area: El Mirador, Izapa, Lamanai, Naj Tunich, Takalik Abaj, Kaminaljuyú, Uaxactun; Valley of Oaxaca: Monte Albán, Dainzú Late Preclassic 400 BCE–200 CE Zoque area: Chiapa de Corzo; Maya area: Kaminaljuyu, El Mirador, Uaxactun, Tikal, Edzná, Cival, San Bartolo, Altar de Sacrificios, Piedras Negras, Ceibal, Rio Azul; Central Mexico: Teotihuacan; Gulf Coast: Epi-Olmec culture Classic 200–900 Classic Maya Centers, Teotihuacan, Zapotec Early Classic 200–600 Maya area: Calakmul, Caracol, Chunchucmil, Copán, Naranjo, Palenque, Quiriguá, Tikal, Uaxactun, Yaxha; Teotihuacan apogee; Zapotec apogee; Bajío apogee. Late Classic 600–900 Maya area: Uxmal, Toniná, Cobá, Xunantunich, Waka', Pusilhá, Xultún, Dos Pilas, Cancuen, Aguateca, La Blanca; Central Mexico: Xochicalco, Cacaxtla, Cholula; Gulf Coast: El Tajín and Classic Veracruz culture Terminal Classic 800–900/1000 Maya area: Puuc sites – Uxmal, Labna, Sayil, Kabah; Petén Basin sites – Seibal, El Chal Postclassic 900–1519 Aztec, Tarascans, Mixtec, Totonac, Pipil, Itzá, Ko'woj, K'iche', Kaqchikel, Poqomam, Mam Early Postclassic 900–1200 Tula, Mitla, Tulum, Topoxte Late Postclassic 1200–1519 Tenochtitlan, Cempoala, Tzintzuntzan, Mayapán, Ti'ho, Q'umarkaj, Iximche, Mixco Viejo, Zaculeu Post Conquest Until 1697 Central Peten: Tayasal, Zacpeten |
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