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Main article: Qing Dynasty
By 1644, the northern Manchu people had conquered China and established a foreign dynasty—the Qing Dynasty—once more. The Manchu Qing emperors, especially Confucian scholar Kangxi, remained largely conservative—retaining the bureaucracy and the scholars within it, as well as the Confucian ideals present in Chinese society. However, changes in the economy and new attempts at resolving certain issues occurred too. These included increased trade with Western countries that brought large amounts of silver into the Chinese economy in exchange for tea, porcelain, and silk textiles. This allowed for a new merchant-class, the compradors, to develop. In addition, repairs were done on existing dikes, canals, roadways, and irrigation works. This, combined with the lowering of taxes and government-assigned labor, was supposed to calm peasant unrest. However, the Qing failed to control the growing landlord class which had begun to exploit the peasantry and abuse their position.
By the late 1700s, both internal and external issues began to arise in Qing China's politics, society, and economy. The exam system with which scholars were assigned into the bureaucracy became increasingly corrupt; bribes and other forms of cheating allowed for inexperienced and inept scholars to enter the bureaucracy and this eventually caused rampant neglect of the peasantry, military, and the previously mentioned infrastructure projects. Poverty and banditry steadily rose, especially in rural areas, and mass migrations looking for work throughout China occurred. The perpetually conservative government refused to make reforms that could resolve these issues.
Opium WarsMain article: Opium Wars
Also reducing China's status was the now parasitic trade going on with Westerners. Originally, European traders were at a disadvantage because the Chinese cared little for what they had to trade, while European demand for Chinese commodities only grew. In order to tip the trade imbalance in their favor, British merchants began to sell Indian opium to the Chinese. Not only did this begin to sap Chinese bullion and goods, but it also created a drug-addicted bureaucracy and society that could not run efficiently. A ban was placed on opium as early as 1729 by Emperor Yongzheng, but little was done to enforce it. By the early 1800s the government began serious efforts to eradicate opium from Chinese society. Leading this endeavour was the respected official, Lin Zexu.
Europeans became enraged at the Chinese actions and demanded compensation. When it was not given to them, the British declared war in 1839, starting the first of the Opium Wars. The outdated Chinese junks were no match for the advanced British gunboats, and soon the Yangzi River region was threatened by British bombardment and invasion. The emperor had no choice but to sue for peace, resulting in the Treaty of Nanking and the exile of Lin Zexu. The former consequence allowed for British acquisition of Hong Kong and open trade and diplomacy with European countries, including Britain, Germany, France, and the USA.
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