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Saudi Arabia is almost unique in giving the ulema (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) a direct role in government,[130] the only other example being Iran.[131] The ulema have also been a key influence in major government decisions, for example the imposition of the oil embargo in 1973 and the invitation to foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990.[132] In addition, they have had a major role in the judicial and education systems[133] and a monopoly of authority in the sphere of religious and social morals.[134] By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization of the country initiated by King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society were under way and the power of the ulema was in decline.[135] However, this changed following the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals.[136] The government's response to the crisis included strengthening the ulema's powers and increasing their financial support:[60] in particular, they were given greater control over the education system[136] and allowed to enforce stricter observance of Wahhabi rules of moral and social behaviour.[60] Since his accession to the throne in 2005, King Abdullah has taken steps to reduce the powers of the ulema, for instance transferring control over girls' education to the Ministry of Education.[137] The ulema have historically been led by the Al ash-Sheikh,[138] the country's leading religious family.[134] The Al ash-Sheikh are the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the 18th century founder of the Wahhabi form of Sunni Islam which is today dominant in Saudi Arabia.[139] The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the royal family)[140] with whom they formed a "mutual support pact"[141] and power-sharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago.[132] The pact, which persists to this day,[141] is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority[142] thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule.[143] Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of the ulema has diminished in recent decades,[144] they still hold the most important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage.[134] Legal system Main article: Legal system of Saudi Arabia See also: Capital punishment in Saudi Arabia and Public executions in Saudi Arabia Verses from the Quran. The Quran is the official constitution of the country and a primary source of law. Saudi Arabia is unique in enshrining a religious text as a political document[145] The primary source of law is the Islamic Sharia derived from the teachings of the Qu'ran and the Sunnah (the traditions of the Prophet).[92] Saudi Arabia is unique among modern Muslim states in that Sharia is not codified and there is no system of judicial precedent, giving judges the power to use independent legal reasoning to make a decision. Saudi judges tend to follow the principles of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence (or fiqh) found in pre-modern texts[146] and noted for its literalist interpretation of the Qu'ran and hadith.[147] Because the judge is empowered to disregard previous judgments (either his own or of other judges) and may apply his personal interpretation of Sharia to any particular case, divergent judgements arise even in apparently identical cases,[148] making predictability of legal interpretation difficult.[149] The Sharia court system constitutes the basic judiciary of Saudi Arabia and its judges (qadi) and lawyers form part of the ulema, the country's Islamic scholars. Royal decrees are the other main source of law; but are referred to as regulations rather than laws because they are subordinate to the Sharia.[92] Royal decrees supplement Sharia in areas such as labor, commercial and corporate law. Additionally, traditional tribal law and custom remain significant.[150] Extra-Sharia government tribunals usually handle disputes relating to specific royal decrees.[151] Final appeal from both Sharia courts and government tribunals is to the King and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence and procedure.[152] The Saudi system of justice has been criticized for being slow, arcane,[153] lacking in some of the safeguards of justice and unable to deal with the modern world.[154] Saudi justice has been criticized for "ultra-puritanical judges", being often harsh, (with beheading for the crime of witchcraft), but sometimes lenient, (for cases of rape or wife-beating), and slow, for example leaving thousands of abandoned women unable to secure a divorce.[155][156] In 2007, King Abdullah issued royal decrees reforming the judiciary and creating a new court system,[148] and, in 2009, the King made a number of significant changes to the judiciary's personnel at the most senior level by bringing in a younger generation.[153] Deera Square, central Riyadh. Known locally as "Chop-chop square", it is the location of public beheadings.[157] Capital and physical punishments imposed by Saudi courts, such as beheading, stoning (to death), amputation, crucifixion and lashing, as well as the sheer number of executions have been strongly criticized.[158] The death penalty can be imposed for a wide range of offences including murder, rape, armed robbery, repeated drug use, apostasy, adultery, witchcraft and sorcery and can be carried out by beheading with a sword, stoning or firing squad, followed by crucifixion.[159][160][161] The 345 reported executions between 2007 and 2010 were all carried out by public beheading. The last reported execution for sorcery took place in September 2014.[162] Although repeated theft can be punishable by amputation of the right hand, only one instance of judicial amputation was reported between 2007 and 2010. Homosexual acts are punishable by flogging or death.[159][161][163][164][165][166] Atheism or "calling into question the fundamentals of the Islamic religion on which this country is based" is considered a terrorist crime.[167] Lashings are a common form of punishment[168] and are often imposed for offences against religion and public morality such as drinking alcohol and neglect of prayer and fasting obligations.[159] Retaliatory punishments, or Qisas, are practised: for instance, an eye can be surgically removed at the insistence of a victim who lost his own eye.[156] Families of someone unlawfully killed can choose between demanding the death penalty or granting clemency in return for a payment of diyya (blood money), by the perpetrator.[169] Human rights Main article: Human rights in Saudi Arabia In 2014, Saudi Arabian writer Raif Badawi was sentenced to 10 years in prison and 1000 lashes for 'insulting Islam'. Western-based organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch condemn both the Saudi criminal justice system and its severe punishments. There are no jury trials in Saudi Arabia and courts observe few formalities.[170] Human Rights Watch, in a 2008 report, noted that a criminal procedure code had been introduced for the first time in 2002, but it lacked some basic protections and, in any case, had been routinely ignored by judges. Those arrested are often not informed of the crime of which they are accused or given access to a lawyer and are subject to abusive treatment and torture if they do not confess. At trial, there is a presumption of guilt and the accused is often unable to examine witnesses and evidence or present a legal defense. Most trials are held in secret.[171] However, "ordinary Saudis", according to a BBC report, support the system and say that it maintains a low crime rate.[172] Saudi Arabia has long been criticized for its human rights record. Human rights issues that have attracted strong criticism include the extremely disadvantaged position of women (see Women in Saudi society below), capital punishment for homosexuality,[173] religious discrimination, the lack of religious freedom and the activities of the religious police (see Religion below).[158] Between 1996 and 2000, Saudi Arabia acceded to four UN human rights conventions and, in 2004, the government approved the establishment of the National Society for Human Rights (NSHR), staffed by government employees, to monitor their implementation. To date, the activities of the NSHR have been limited and doubts remain over its neutrality and independence.[174] Saudi Arabia remains one of the very few countries in the world not to accept the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In response to the continuing criticism of its human rights record, the Saudi government points to the special Islamic character of the country, and asserts that this justifies a different social and political order.[175] The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom had unsuccessfully[176] urged President Barack Obama to raise human rights concerns with King Abdullah on his March 2014 visit to the Kingdom especially the imprisonments of Sultan Hamid Marzooq al-Enezi, Saud Falih Awad al-Enezi, and Raif Badawi.[177] Saudi Arabia also conducts dozens of executions each year, mainly for murder and drug smuggling, although there are people who have been executed for deserting Islam and crimes against the Faisal bin Musaid.[178] The method of execution is normally beheading in public.[179][180] In 2013, the government deported thousands of non-Saudis, many of them who were working illegally in the country or had overstayed their visas. Many reports abound, of foreigner workers being tortured either by employers or others.[181][182] This resulted in many basic services suffering from a lack of workers, as many Saudi Arabian citizens are not keen on working in blue collar jobs.[183][184][185] Saudi Arabia has a "Counter-Radicalization Program" the purpose of which is to "combat the spread and appeal of extremist ideologies among the general populous" and to "instill the true values of the Islamic faith, such as tolerance and moderation."[186] This "tolerance and moderation" has been called into question by the Baltimore Sun, based on the reports from Amnesty International regarding Raif Badawi,[187] and in the case of a man from Hafr al-Batin sentenced to death for rejecting Islam.[188] Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Saudi Arabia U.S. President Barack Obama with King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia, July 2014 Saudi Arabia joined the UN in 1945[28][189] and is a founding member of the Arab League, Gulf Cooperation Council, Muslim World League, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation).[190] It plays a prominent role in the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and in 2005 joined the World Trade Organization.[28] Saudi Arabia supports the intended formation of the Arab Customs Union in 2015 and an Arab common market[191] by 2020, as announced at the 2009 Arab League summit.[192] Since 1960, as a founding member of OPEC, its oil pricing policy has been generally to stabilize the world oil market and try to moderate sharp price movements so as to not jeopardise the Western economies.[28][193] Between the mid-1970s and 2002 Saudi Arabia expended over $70 billion in "overseas development aid". However, there is evidence that the vast majority was, in fact, spent on propagating and extending the influence of Wahhabism at the expense of other forms of Islam.[194] There has been an intense debate over whether Saudi aid and Wahhabism has fomented extremism in recipient countries.[195] The two main allegations are that, by its nature, Wahhabism encourages intolerance and promotes terrorism.[196] Relations with the United States became strained following 9/11.[197] American politicians and media accused the Saudi government of supporting terrorism and tolerating a jihadist culture.[198] Indeed, Osama bin Laden and fifteen out of the nineteen 9/11 hijackers were from Saudi Arabia.[199] According to former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, "Saudi Arabia remains a critical financial support base for al-Qaida, the Taliban, LeT and other terrorist groups... Donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide."[200] Former CIA director James Woolsey described it as "the soil in which Al-Qaeda and its sister terrorist organizations are flourishing."[201] The Saudi government strenuously denies these claims or that it exports religious or cultural extremism.[202] Faisal Mosque in Islamabad is named after a Saudi King. The Kingdom is a strong ally of Pakistan, WikiLeaks claimed that Saudis are "long accustomed to having a significant role in Pakistan's affairs"."[203] In the Arab and Muslim worlds, Saudi Arabia is considered to be pro-Western and pro-American,[204] and it is certainly a long-term ally of the United States.[205] However, this[206] and Saudi Arabia's role in the 1991 Persian Gulf War, particularly the stationing of U.S. troops on Saudi soil from 1991, prompted the development of a hostile Islamist response internally.[207] As a result, Saudi Arabia has, to some extent, distanced itself from the U.S. and, for example, refused to support or to participate in the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003.[85] The consequences of the 2003 invasion and the Arab Spring led to increasing alarm within the Saudi monarchy over the rise of Iran's influence in the region. These fears were reflected in comments of King Abdullah,[137] who privately urged the United States to attack Iran and "cut off the head of the snake".[208] The tentative rapprochement between the US and Iran that began in secret in 2011[209] was said to be feared by the Saudis,[210] and, during the run up to the widely welcomed deal on Iran's nuclear programme that capped the first stage of US–Iranian détente, Robert Jordan, who was U.S. ambassador to Riyadh from 2001 to 2003, said "[t]he Saudis' worst nightmare would be the [Obama] administration striking a grand bargain with Iran."[211] A trip to Saudi by US President Barack Obama in 2014 included discussions of US–Iran relations, though these failed to resolve Riyadh's concerns.[212] As of 2015, together with Qatar and Turkey, Saudi Arabia is openly supporting the Army of Conquest,[213][214] an umbrella group of anti-government forces fighting in the Syrian Civil War that reportedly includes an al-Qaeda linked al-Nusra Front and another Salafi coalition known as Ahrar ash-Sham.[215] Saudi Arabia has been seen as a moderating influence in the Arab-Israeli conflict, periodically putting forward a peace plan between Israel and the Palestinians and condemning Hezbollah.[216] Following the Arab Spring Saudi Arabia offered asylum to deposed President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia and King Abdullah telephoned President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt (prior to his deposition) to offer his support.[217] In early 2014 relations with Qatar became strained over its support for the Muslim Brotherhood, and Saudi Arabia's belief that Qatar was interfering in its affairs. In August 2014 both countries appeared to be exploring ways of ending the rift.[218] Military Main article: Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia Further information: Al-Yamamah arms deal and Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen Royal Saudi Air Force Eurofighter Typhoon and Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk. Saudi Arabia has the highest percentage of military expenditure in the world, spending more than 10% of its GDP in its military. The Saudi military consists of the Royal Saudi Land Forces, the Royal Saudi Air Force, the Royal Saudi Navy, the Royal Saudi Air Defense, the Saudi Arabian National Guard (SANG, an independent military force), and paramilitary forces, totaling nearly 200,000 active-duty personnel. In 2005 the armed forces had the following personnel: the army, 75,000; the air force, 18,000; air defense, 16,000; the navy, 15,500 (including 3,000 marines); and the SANG had 75,000 active soldiers and 25,000 tribal levies. [219] In addition, there is an Al Mukhabarat Al A'amah military intelligence service. The kingdom has a long-standing military relationship with Pakistan, it has long been speculated that Saudi Arabia secretly funded Pakistan's atomic bomb programme and seeks to purchase atomic weapons from Pakistan, in near future.[220][221] The SANG is not a reserve but a fully operational front-line force, and originated out of Ibn Saud's tribal military-religious force, the Ikhwan. Its modern existence, however, is attributable to it being effectively Abdullah's private army since the 1960s and, unlike the rest of the armed forces, is independent of the Ministry of Defense and Aviation. The SANG has been a counterbalance to the Sudairi faction in the royal family: Prince Sultan, the Minister of Defense and Aviation, is one of the so-called 'Sudairi Seven' and controls the remainder of the armed forces.[222] Saudi and U.S. troops train in December 2014 Spending on defense and security has increased significantly since the mid-1990s and was about US$25.4 billion in 2005. Saudi Arabia ranks among the top 10 in the world in government spending for its military, representing about 7% of gross domestic product in 2005. Its modern high-technology arsenal makes Saudi Arabia among the world's most densely armed nations, with its military equipment being supplied primarily by the US, France and Britain.[219] The United States sold more than $80 billion in military hardware between 1951 and 2006 to the Saudi military.[223] On 20 October 2010, the U.S. State Department notified Congress of its intention to make the biggest arms sale in American history—an estimated $60.5 billion purchase by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The package represents a considerable improvement in the offensive capability of the Saudi armed forces.[224] 2013 saw Saudi military spending climb to $67bn, overtaking that of the UK, France and Japan to place fourth globally.[225] The UK has also been a major supplier of military equipment to Saudi Arabia since 1965.[226] Since 1985, the UK has supplied military aircraft—notably the Tornado and Eurofighter Typhoon combat aircraft—and other equipment as part of the long-term Al-Yamamah arms deal estimated to have been worth £43 billion by 2006 and thought to be worth a further £40 billion.[227] In May 2012, British defence giant BAE signed a £1.9bn ($3bn) deal to supply Hawk trainer jets to Saudi Arabia.[228] According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI, in 2010–14 Saudi Arabia became the world’s second largest arms importer, receiving four times more major arms than in 2005–2009. Major imports in 2010–14 included 45 combat aircraft from the UK, 38 combat helicopters from the USA, 4 tanker aircraft from Spain and over 600 armoured vehicles from Canada. Saudi Arabia has a long list of outstanding orders for arms, including 27 more combat aircraft from the UK, 154 combat aircraft from the USA and a large number of armoured vehicles from Canada.[25] Geography Main article: Geography of Saudi Arabia Ecoregions as delineated by the WWF. The yellow line encloses the ecoregions Arabian Desert, East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands and two other smaller desert areas.[229] Saudi Arabia occupies about 80% of the Arabian Peninsula (the world's largest peninsula),[230] lying between latitudes 16° and 33° N, and longitudes 34° and 56° E. Because the country's southern borders with the United Arab Emirates and Oman are not precisely marked, the exact size of the country is undefined.[230] The CIA World Factbook estimates 2,149,690 km2 (830,000 sq mi) and lists Saudi Arabia as the world's 13th largest state.[231] Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the Arabian Desert and associated semi-desert and shrubland (see satellite image to right). It is, in fact, a number of linked deserts and includes the 647,500 km2 (250,001 sq mi) Rub' al Khali ("Empty Quarter") in the southern part of the country, the world's largest contiguous sand desert.[85][232] There are virtually no rivers or lakes in the country, but wadis are numerous. The few fertile areas are to be found in the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases.[85] The main topographical feature is the central plateau which rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends into the Nejd and toward the Persian Gulf. On the Red Sea coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as the Tihamah parallel to which runs an imposing escarpment. The southwest province of Asir is mountainous, and contains the 3,133 m (10,279 ft) Mount Sawda, which is the highest point in the country.[85] The Nejd landscape: desert and the Tuwaiq Escarpment near Riyadh Except for the southwestern province of Asir, Saudi Arabia has a desert climate with extremely high day-time temperatures and a sharp temperature drop at night. Average summer temperatures are around 113 °F (45 °C), but can be as high as 129 °F (54 °C). In the winter the temperature rarely drops below 32 °F (0 °C). In the spring and autumn the heat is temperate, temperatures average around 84 °F (29 °C). Annual rainfall is extremely low. The Asir region differs in that it is influenced by the Indian Ocean monsoons, usually occurring between October and March. An average of 300 mm (12 in) of rainfall occurs during this period, that is about 60% of the annual precipitation.[233] Animal life includes wolves, hyenas, mongooses, baboons, hares, sand rats, and jerboas. Larger animals such as gazelles, oryx, and leopards were relatively numerous until the 1950s, when hunting from motor vehicles reduced these animals almost to extinction. Birds include falcons (which are caught and trained for hunting), eagles, hawks, vultures, sand grouse and bulbuls. There are several species of snakes, many of which are venomous, and numerous types of lizards. There is a wide variety of marine life in the Persian Gulf. Domesticated animals include camels, sheep, goats, donkeys, and chickens. Reflecting the country's desert conditions, Saudi Arabia's plant life mostly consists of small herbs and shrubs requiring little water. There are a few small areas of grass and trees in southern Asir. The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is widespread.[85] Administrative divisions Main articles: Regions of Saudi Arabia and Governorates of Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 regions[234] (Arabic: مناطق إدارية; manatiq idāriyya, sing. منطقة إدارية; mintaqah idariyya). The provinces are further divided into 118 governorates (Arabic: محافظات; muhafazat, sing. محافظة; muhafazah). This number includes the 13 regional capitals, which have a different status as municipalities (Arabic: أمانة; amanah) headed by mayors (Arabic: أمين; amin). The governorates are further sudivided into sub-governorates (Arabic: مراكز; marakiz, sing. مركز; markaz). No. Province Capital Provinces of Saudi Arabia 1 Al Jawf (or Jouf) Sakaka 2 Northern Borders Arar 3 Tabuk Tabuk 4 Ha'il Ha'il 5 Al Madinah Medina 6 Al Qasim Buraidah 7 Makkah Mecca 8 Al Riyadh Riyadh 9 Eastern Province Dammam 10 Al Bahah (or Baha) Al Bahah 11 Asir Abha 12 Jizan Jizan 13 Najran Najran Economy Main article: Economy of Saudi Arabia King Fahd Road in Riyadh Saudi Arabia's command economy is petroleum-based; roughly 75% of budget revenues and 90% of export earnings come from the oil industry. It is strongly dependent on foreign workers with about 80% of those employed in the private sector being non-Saudi.[235][236] Among the challenges to Saudi economy include halting or reversing the decline in per capita income, improving education to prepare youth for the workforce and providing them with employment, diversifying the economy, stimulating the private sector and housing construction, diminishing corruption and inequality. The oil industry comprises about 45% of Saudi Arabia's nominal gross domestic product, compared with 40% from the private sector (see below). Saudi Arabia officially has about 260 billion barrels (4.1×1010 m3) of oil reserves, comprising about one-fifth of the world's proven total petroleum reserves.[237] In the 1990s, Saudi Arabia experienced a significant contraction of oil revenues combined with a high rate of population growth. Per capita income fell from a high of $11,700 at the height of the oil boom in 1981 to $6,300 in 1998.[238] Taking into account the impact of the real oil price changes on the Kingdom's real gross domestic income, the real command-basis GDP was computed to be 330.381 billion 1999 USD in 2010.[239] Increases in oil prices in the aughts[peacock term] helped boost per capita GDP to $17,000 in 2007 dollars (about $7,400 adjusted for inflation),[240] but have declined since oil price drop in mid-2014.[241] Office of Saudi Aramco, world's most valuable company and main source of revenue for the state. OPEC (the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) limits its members' oil production based on their "proven reserves." Saudi Arabia's published reserves have shown little change since 1980, with the main exception being an increase of about 100 billion barrels (1.6×1010 m3) between 1987 and 1988.[242] Matthew Simmons has suggested that Saudi Arabia is greatly exaggerating its reserves and may soon show production declines (see peak oil).[243] Al-Rajhi Bank is world's largest Islamic bank. Kingdom Holding Company has investments in Apple, Euro Disney S.C.A., Twitter and Citigroup Saudi Telecom Company is world's 15th largest mobile network operator. From 2003–2013 "several key services" were privatized—municipal water supply, electricity, telecommunications—and parts of education and health care, traffic control and car accident reporting were also privatized. According to Arab News columnist Abdel Aziz Aluwaisheg, "in almost every one of these areas, consumers have raised serious concerns about the performance of these privatized entities."[244] The Tadawul All Share Index (TASI) of the Saudi stock exchange peaked at 16,712.64 in 2005, and closed at 8,535.60, at the end of 2013.[245] In November 2005, Saudi Arabia was approved as a member of the World Trade Organization. Negotiations to join had focused on the degree to which Saudi Arabia is willing to increase market access to foreign goods and in 2000, the government established the Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority to encourage foreign direct investment in the kingdom. Saudi Arabia maintains a list of sectors in which foreign investment is prohibited, but the government plans to open some closed sectors such as telecommunications, insurance, and power transmission/distribution over time. The government has also attempted to "Saudizing" the economy, replacing foreign workers with Saudi nationals with limited success.[246] Saudi Arabia has had five-year "Development Plans" since 1970. Among its plans were to launch "economic cities" (e.g. King Abdullah Economic City) to be completed by 2020, in an effort to diversify the economy and provide jobs. As of 2013 four cities were planned.[247] The King has announced that the per capita income is forecast to rise from $15,000 in 2006 to $33,500 in 2020.[248] The cities will be spread around Saudi Arabia to promote diversification for each region and their economy, and the cities are projected to contribute $150 billion to the GDP. In addition to petroleum and gas, Saudi also has a small gold mining sector in the Mahd adh Dhahab region[249] and other mineral industries, an agricultural sector (especially in the southwest) based on dates and livestock, and large number of temporary jobs created by the roughly two million annual hajj pilgrims.[250] Statistics on poverty in the kingdom are not available through the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue any.[251] The Saudi state discourages calling attention to or complaining about poverty. In December 2011, the Saudi interior ministry arrested three reporters and held them for almost two weeks for questioning after they uploaded a video on the topic to YouTube.[252][253][254] Authors of the video claim that 22% of Saudis may be considered poor (2009).[255] Observers researching the issue prefer to stay anonymous[256] because of the risk of being arrested. Demographics Main articles: Saudi Arabian people and Demographics of Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia population density (people per km2) The population of Saudi Arabia as of July 2013 is estimated to be 26.9 million, including between 5.5 million[5] and 10 million non-nationalized immigrants,[236][257] Saudi population has grown rapidly since 1950 when it was estimated to be 3 million,[258] and for many years had one of the highest birthrates in the world at around 3% a year.[259] The ethnic composition of Saudi citizens is 90% Arab and 10% Afro-Asian.[260] Most Saudis live in Hejaz (35%), Najd (28%), and the Eastern Province (15%).[261] Hejaz is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia.[262] As late as 1970, most Saudis lived a subsistence life in the rural provinces, but in the last half of the 20th century the kingdom has urbanized rapidly. As of 2012 about 80% of Saudis live in urban metropolitan areas—specifically Riyadh, Jeddah, or Dammam. [263][264] Its population is also quite young with over half the population under 25 years old.[265] A large fraction are foreign nationals. (The CIA Factbook estimated that as of 2013 foreign nationals living in Saudi Arabia made up about 21% of the population.[5] Other estimates are 30%[266] or 33%[267]) As recently as the early 1960s, Saudi Arabia's slave population was estimated at 300,000.[268] Slavery was officially abolished in 1962.[269][270] Languages The official language of Saudi Arabia is Arabic. The three main regional variants spoken by Saudis are Hejazi Arabic (about 6 million speakers[271]), Najdi Arabic (about 8 million speakers[272]), and Gulf Arabic (about 0.2 million speakers[273]). Saudi Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community. The large expatriate communities also speak their own languages, the most numerous of which are Tagalog (700,000), Rohingya (400,000), Urdu (380,000), and Egyptian Arabic (300,000).[274] An open-air mosque near Jeddah Religions Virtually all Saudi citizens are Muslim,[275] and almost all Saudi residents are Muslim.[276][276][277] Estimates of the Sunni population of Saudi Arabia are somewhere between 75–90%, with the remaining 10–25% being Shia Muslim.[15][278][279][280][281] The official and dominant form of Sunni Islam in Saudi Arabia is commonly known as Wahhabism, (proponents prefer the name Salafism, considering Wahhabi derogatory[282]) and is often described as 'puritanical', 'intolerant', or 'ultra-conservative' by observers, and as "true" Islam by its adherents. It was founded in the Arabian Peninsula by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the eighteenth century. Foreigners The CIA Factbook estimated that as of 2013 foreign nationals living in Saudi Arabia made up about 21% of the population.[5] Other sources report differing estimates.[267] Indian: 1.3 million, Pakistani: 1.5 million,[283] Egyptian: 900,000, Yemeni: 800,000, Bangladeshi: 500,000, Filipino: 500,000, Jordanian/Palestinian: 260,000, Indonesian: 250,000, Sri Lankan: 350,000, Sudanese: 250,000, Syrian: 100,000 and Turkish: 100,000.[284] There are around 100,000 Westerners in Saudi Arabia, most of whom live in compounds or gated communities. Foreign Muslims[285] who have resided in the kingdom for ten years may apply for Saudi citizenship. (Priority is given to holders of degrees in various scientific fields,[286] and exception made for Palestinians who are excluded unless married to Saudi national, because of Arab League instructions barring the Arab states from granting them citizenship.) As Saudi population grows and oil export revenues stagnate, pressure for "Saudization" (the replacement of foreign workers with Saudis) has grown, and the Saudi government hopes to decrease the number of foreign nationals in the country.[287] Saudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991.[288] and has built a Saudi–Yemen barrier against an influx of illegal immigrants and against the smuggling of drugs and weapons.[289] In November 2013, Saudi Arabia expelled thousands of illegal Ethiopians from the Kingdom. Various Human Rights entities have criticised Saudi Arabia's handling of the issue.[290] Largest cities v t e Largest cities or towns in Saudi Arabia Central Department of Statistics & Information [1] Rank Name Regions Pop. Rank Name Regions Pop. Riyadh Riyadh Jeddah Jeddah 1 Riyadh Riyadh 5,328,228 11 Tabuk Tabuk 569,797 Mecca Mecca Medina Medina 2 Jeddah Makkah 3,456,259 12 Ha'il Ha'il 412,758 3 Mecca Makkah 1,675,368 13 Hafar Al-Batin Eastern 389,993 4 Medina Al Madinah 1,180,770 14 Jubail Eastern 378,949 5 Al-Ahsa Eastern 1,063,112 15 Al-Kharj Riyadh 376,325 6 Ta'if Makkah 987,914 16 Qatif Eastern 371,182 7 Dammam Eastern 903,597 17 Abha 'Asir 366,551 8 Khamis Mushait 'Asir 630,000 18 Najran Najran 329,112 9 Buraidah Al-Qassim 614,093 19 Yanbu Al Madinah 298,675 10 Khobar Eastern 578,500 20 Al Qunfudhah Makkah 272,424 Culture Main article: Culture of Saudi Arabia Stoning of the Devil in Mina Saudi Arabia has centuries-old attitudes and traditions, often derived from Arab civilization. This culture has been heavily influenced by the austerely puritanical Wahhabi form of Islam, which arose in the eighteenth century and now predominates in the country. Wahhabi Islam has been called "the predominant feature of Saudi culture."[11] Religion in society Main article: Religion in Saudi Arabia See also: Islam in Saudi Arabia, Freedom of religion in Saudi Arabia, Wahhabism and Salafism Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram, Mecca Saudi Arabia differs from other modern Muslim counties in being the only state "to have been created by jihad, the only one to claim the Quran as its constitution", and the only Arab-Muslim country "to have escaped European imperialism."[291] Its Hejaz region and its cities Mecca and Medina are the cradle of Islam, the destination of the hajj pilgrimage, the two holiest sites of Islam.[292] Islam is the state religion of Saudi Arabia and its law requires that all citizens be Muslims.[293] Neither Saudi citizens nor guest workers have the right of Freedom of religion.[293] The official and dominant form of Islam in the kingdom -- Wahhabism—arose in the central region of Najd, the eighteenth century. Proponents call the movement "Salafism",[282] and believe that its teachings purify the practice of Islam of innovations or practices that deviate from the seventh-century teachings of Muhammad and his companions.[294] Saudi is one of the few countries that have "religious police" (known as Haia or Mutaween), who patrol the streets "enjoining good and forbidding wrong" by enforcing dress codes, strict separation of men and women, attendance at prayer (salat) five times each day, the ban on alcohol, and other aspects of Sharia (Islamic law). (In the privacy of the home behavior can be far looser, and reports from the Daily Mail and WikiLeaks indicate that the ruling Saudi Royal family applies a different moral code to itself, indulging in parties, drugs and sex.[295]) The kingdom uses the lunar Islamic calendar, not the international Gregorian calendar.[296] Daily life is dominated by Islamic observance. Businesses are closed three or four times a day[297] for 30 to 45 minutes during business hours while employees and customers are sent off to pray.[298] The weekend is Friday-Saturday, not Saturday-Sunday, because Friday is the holiest day for Muslims.[85][299][300] For many years only two religious holidays were publicly recognized -- ʿĪd al-Fiṭr and ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā. (ʿĪd al-Fiṭr is "the biggest" holiday a three-day period of "feasting, gift-giving and general letting go".[301]) As of 2004 approximately half of the broadcast airtime of Saudi state television was devoted to religious issues.[302] 90% of books published in the kingdom were on religious subjects, and most of the doctorates awarded by its universities were in Islamic studies.[303] In the state school system, about half of the material taught is religious. In contrast, assigned readings over twelve years of primary and secondary schooling devoted to covering the history, literature, and cultures of the non-Muslim world comes to a total of about 40 pages.[302] "Fierce religious resistance" had to be overcome to permit such innovations as paper money (in 1951), female education (1964), and television (1965) and the abolition of slavery (1962).[304] Public support for the traditional political/religious structure of the kingdom is so strong that one researcher interviewing Saudis found virtually no support for reforms to secularize the state.[305] Because of religious restrictions, Saudi culture lacks any diversity of religious expression, buildings, annual festivals and public events.[306][307] Celebration of other (non-Wahhabi) Islamic holidays, such as the Muhammad's birthday and the Day of Ashura, (an important holiday for the 10-25% of the population [15][278][279][280] that is Shīʿa Muslim), are tolerated only when celebrated locally and on a small scale.[308] Shia also face systematic discrimination in employment, education, the justice system according to Human Rights Watch.[309][310][311] Non-Muslim festivals like Christmas and Easter are not tolerated at all,[312] although there are nearly a million Christians as well as Hindus and Buddhists among the foreign workers.[6][312] No churches, temples or other non-Muslim houses of worship permitted in the country. Proselytizing by non-Muslims and conversion by Muslims to another religion is illegal,[6] and as of 2014 the distribution of "publications that have prejudice to any other religious belief other than Islam" (such as Bibles), was reportedly punishable by death.[313][314] In legal compensation court cases (Diyya) non-Muslim are awarded less than Muslims.[312] Atheists are legally designated as terrorists.[315] Saudis or foreign residents who call "into question the fundamentals of the Islamic religion on which this country is based" may be subject to as much as 20 years in prison.[316] And at least one religious minority, the Ahmadiyya Muslims, had its adherents deported,[317] as they are legally banned from entering the country.[318] |
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